CSEGA (Combined Spinal-Epidural-General
Anesthesia): The Anesthesia of the Future?
Joseph
Eldor, MD
What is
Anesthesia?
The Synergism between Regional and General Anesthesia
Total spinal
anesthesia: The origin of CSEGA
Use of
Ephedrine in CSEGA
Cardiovascular
effects of CSEGA
Cord ischemia
and preemptive analgesia
The
Serbian Experience
CSEGA
for Urologic Operations
CSEGA
for Obstetric and Gynecologic Operations
CSEGA
for Abdominal Operations
CSEGA
for Lumbar Disc Operations
CSEGA
for Pediatric Operations
CSEGA
for Orthopedic Operations
CSEGA
for Vascular Operations
CSEGA
for Cardiac Operations
CSEGA
for Laparoscopic Operations
CSEGA:
Statistics
CSEGA
and the Immune System
CSEGA
and Special Diseases
CSEGA:
Complications
CSEGA
and Emergency Operations
CSEGA
and Asthma
CSEGA
and Liver Operation
CSEGA
and Postoperative Pain
Conclusion
Each
one of the three kinds of anesthesia (spinal, epidural, general) has its
advantages and disadvantages. A new concept of combined spinal-epidural-general
anesthesia (CSEGA) is illustrated with the objective of producing a new kind of
anesthesia. The aim is to draw out the good from each compartment. CSEGA can be
based on muscle relaxation and anesthesia on its spinal part with the epidural
augmentation. The endotracheal intubation can be kept in place with a very
small dose of an inhalational anesthetic. There is no need for muscle relaxant
drugs, i.v. opioids or benzodiazepines, For postoperative analgesia serves the
epidural catheter. Very small doses of local anesthetic drugs injected into the
spinal or epidural compartments, could be all that is needed for operations on
any part of the body, including thorax and head. CSEGA is a new concept in
anesthesia. The mixing of regional anesthesia with general anesthesia affords
the anesthesiologist the opportunity to lower the local anesthetic doses, avoid
using many kinds of intravenous drugs (muscle relaxants, opioids,
benzodiazepines, etc.) and to approach a kind of anesthesia that is closer to
the ideal (1).
What is anesthesia?
Definitions of the state of anesthesia: 1. Drug-induced unconsciousness; the patient neither perceives nor recalls noxious stimulation (2). 2. Reversible oblivion and immobility (3). 3. Paralysis, unconsciousness, and attenuation of the stress response (4). 4. Sensory block, motor block, blocking of reflexes, and mental block (5). 5. All separate effects used to protect the patient from the trauma of surgery (6). Jorgensen et al. (7) studied the anesthetic choice of 705 patients of outpatient surgery candidates prior to speaking to the anesthesiologist. Sixty five percent preffered general anesthesia, 22% - spinal anesthesia, and 12% were unsure. Of those who had spinal anesthesia previously, only 33% would select it in the future. Conversely, 70% of patients who had general anesthesia would prefer it again. Concerns about spinal anesthesia were: paralysis, nerve damage, being awake, infection, inadequate anesthesia, backache, fear of needle and headache. The use of regional anesthesia in residency training programs has increased from 21.3% in 1980 to 29.8% in 1990, primarily because of a two-fold rise in the use of epidural anesthesia (8). Advantages of spinal anesthesia: Obviates the need for deep general anesthesia, profound muscle relaxation, cheap, easy to perform, danger of toxic drug signs - negligible. Disadvantages of spinal anesthesia: hypotension, postoperative headache, some patients prefer to be asleep during operation. The combined spinal-epidural anesthesia combines the rapid onset and good muscle relaxation of subarachnoid block with the ability to supplement analgesia through the epidural catheter, intraoperatively and after the operation. Reynolds et al. (9) using plain lumbar x-rays and CT after injection of iodized oil into the extradural space of 19 subjects recorded the depth of the extradural space at the caudal end: 8.3 ±1.95 mm (at the level of T12). Westbrook et al. (10) found even a smaller ligamentum flavum-dura mater depth at the L2-3 level: 3.95±1.1 mm by using the magnetic resonance imager of 39 subjects. Pitkin (11) describing spinal anesthesia in 1928 wrote that "in 1912, its use was confined to very elderly people, those considered as `bad risks` and to whom we were afraid to give ether". Koster (12) described in 1928 his experience of spinal anesthesia also in operations of the head, neck and thorax. He wrote: "Any one who can do a lumbar puncture can induce spinal anesthesia; the method is reasonably `fool proof` ". Babcock (13) in 1928 summarized his experience of 24 years with spinal anesthesia: "In no other known way can so profound and extensive an anesthesia be produced by so small a dose of a drug and with so little general toxicity". Bromage (14) stated in 1967 that "the beautiful precision and economy of a subarachnoid block is lacking in epidural anesthesia". Greene and Brull (15) in their preface to the fourth edition of "Physiology of Spinal Anesthesia" have written: "Epidural and spinal anesthesia are indeed related to each other, but only to the same extent as cousins or, at best, siblings; monozygotic twins they are not".
The Synergism between Regional and
General Anesthesia
Perimedullary anesthetic
techniques (epidural or spinal anesthesia), by themselves or combined with
general anesthesia offer several advantages in the postoperative period when
compared with general anesthesia alone (17). The incidence of postoperative
respiratory and cardiovascular complications is decreased. The physiologic
stress reaction, with its associated hypercoagulable state and immune depression,
is attenuated. Finally, the resumption of gastrointestinal function is
hastened. These benefits of central neural blockade are noted most clearly when
the techniques are used for several days postoperatively, most often by
catheter based epidural analgesia. The use of local anesthetic agents in the
analgesic mixture would appear to be important. This is likely because these
substances inhibit the sympathetic nervous system and spinal reflex axes. The
role of this inhibition in the advantages of perimedullary techniques is
probably important. It is important to note that inhibition of the
sympathatetic nervous system can be associated with indesirable consequences in
certain patients. These techniques must therefore be used cautiously, and
patients who benefit from them must receive careful surveillance.
Lipophilic opioids,
especially fentanyl and sufentanil, are increasingly being administered
intrathecally as adjuncts to spinal anesthesia. Hamber and Viscomi (18)
analyzed the efficacy of these opioids for subarachnoid anesthesia. Medline
search of the literature from 1980 to the present and a survey of recent
meeting abstracts were reviewed. A significant number of citations regarding
intrathecal lipophilic opioids as adjuncts to spinal anesthesia were found: 59
were cited in this review. Most clinical experience has been in obstetric
surgery, but lipophilic spinal opioid administration is being used with greater
frequency for other surgical procedures as well. The benefits include reduction
of minimal alveolar concentration (MAC) when general anesthesia is combined
with spinal anesthesia and enhancement of the quality of spinal anesthesia
without prolongation of motor block. Intrathecal fentanyl and sufentanil allow
clinicians to use smaller doses of spinal local anesthetic, yet still provide
excellent anesthesia for surgical procedures. Furthermore, lipophilic
opioid/local anesthetic combination permits more rapid motor recovery; short
outpatient procedures are therefore more amenable to spinal anesthesia.
Finally, the side-effect profiles of intrathecal lipophilic opioids are now
well characterized and appear less troublesome than intrathecal morphine. The
anesthesia-enhancing properties and side-effect profile of lipophilic opioids
administered intrathecally suggest significant roles for these agents as
adjuncts to spinal anesthesia for obstetric and outpatient procedures.
Endoh and Matsuda (19)
compared the efficacy of epidurally administered buprenorphine (0.2 mg) after
combined spinal-epidural anesthesia (CSE group) and that after general
anesthesia combined with epidural anesthesia (EPI + GEN group). Postoperatively
epidural buprenorphine was administered for initial pain relief significantly
later in CSE group than in EPI + GEN group. The duration of pain relief with
epidural buprenorphine was similar in both groups (about 11 hours). The time
period until postoperative first walk and the number of pain relief medication
were also similar in both groups. There was the impression that the onset of pain
relief was faster in CSE group, probably because there might be flux of
buprenorphine through a dural hole just after epidural administration.
New justification for the
use of regional anaesthesia, either alone or in combination with general
anaesthesia, has been provided with reports of some unexpected influences on
outcome. A reduction in the incidence of postoperative thrombotic episodes and
vascular graft occlusion is strongly suggested in patients with generalized
vascular disease. Application of a variety of drugs, including local
anaesthetics, opioids and adrenergic agonists, in the region of the spinal cord
reduces afferent input during surgery and also the metabolic stress response.
Evidence is increasing that this multi-modal approach to anaesthesia has
important consequences in the spinal cord which result in modification of the
postoperative requirement for analgesia. Premedication with opioid and other
analgesics may also enhance this pre-emptive effect. New general anaesthetic
and analgesic drugs are available that are more suited to these combined
techniques. They have shorter duration of action so that plasma concentration
can be rapidly adjusted to match a variable surgical stimulus(20).
The neuroprotective potential of halothane anesthesia was explored in a
weight-drop model of spinal trauma in the rat (N = 252) (21). In initial
experiments, animals were subjected to 25, 50 or 100 g cm impact injuries at
T10 during pentobarbital or halothane anesthesia and their outcomes determined
using somatosensory-evoked potentials, blinded neurologic evaluations for two
weeks, and post-mortem analysis of spinal serotonin levels. Subsequently,
halothane anesthesia was combined with either pentobarbital or nitrous oxide or
given as a late treatment to pentobarbital anesthetized rats subjected to 50 g
cm injuries. A series of acute studies were then performed in order to assess
the hemodynamic and respiratory concomitants of halothane vs. pentobarbital, as
well as the effect of mechanical ventilation and bicarbonate treatment upon
halothane neuroprotection. Finally, the effect of a 50 g cm impact upon local
white matter spinal cord blood flow was measured during halothane or
pentobarbital anesthesia using laser-Doppler flowmetry. Results demonstrate an active
neuroprotective action for halothane anesthesia that is not altered by the
presence of other anesthetics and is most prominent at severe injury levels.
The data suggest the importance of immediate injury responses in this action.
Late halothane treatment was ineffective when given as early as 10 minutes
postinjury while both the electrophysiological and hemodynamic effects of
halothane vs. pentobarbital were apparent during this 10 minute period. Thus,
halothane was associated with the prevention of spinal ischemia during the
first 10 minutes after trauma in comparison to pentobarbital.
Lo Presti et al. (22)
reviewed the advantages and disadvantages of general and regional anesthesia in
bad clinical conditions. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy
of Blended Anesthesia (association of general anesthesia with a regional
technique) in 25 patients belonging to ASA classes II-III-IV, undergoing
surgery for various disease. General anesthesia was provided by perfusion of
propofol, after a peridural or subarachnoid continuous anesthesia was started.
Patients were either in spontaneous or controlled ventilation. There were no
cases of hypotension or other important side effects and the majority of
patients judged good the anesthetic technique in regard to lack of pain,
exhaustion and recall of operation.
Morley et al. (23)
conducted a prospective, randomized, controlled trial to establish the effect
of epidural blockade on isoflurane requirements for equivalent intraoperative
electroencephalographic (EEG) suppression. Fifty patients undergoing abdominal
hysterectomy received combined epidural and general anesthesia or general
anesthesia alone with isoflurane and alfentanil. Isoflurane was administered by
computer-controlled closed-loop feedback to maintain an EEG 95% spectral edge
frequency of 17.5 Hz, a target chosen on the basis of a pilot study. In
epidural patients, end-tidal isoflurane concentration (FE'(ISO)) was 0.19%
smaller (95% confidence interval [CI], -0.32% to -0.06%; P < 0.01), mean arterial
blood pressure was 17 mm Hg lower (95% CI,
Total
spinal anesthesia: The origin of CSEGA
Evans (24) described in 1928 the
possible complications of spinal anesthesia. Concerning respiratory paralysis
he wrote:" If respiration should cease , keep cool. Raise the lower jaw,
pull the tongue forward and begin artificial respiration at a uniform rate.
Mouth to mouth insufflation is the most convenient and efficacious method of
artificial respiration". Twenty years before, in September 1908, before
the Congress of the International Society of Surgery, in
Use of Ephedrine in CSEGA
Ephedrine is the sympathomimetic drug which is most widely used to sustain blood pressure during spinal anesthesia. The active principal was isolated from the chinese herb ma huang in 1885 by Yamanashi (45). Butterworth et al. (46) found that a mixed adrenergic agonist such as ephedrine more ideally corrected the noncardiac circulatory sequelae of total spinal anesthesia in dogs than did either a pure alpha (phenyl-ephrine) or a pure beta-adrenergic agonist (isoproterenol). Butterworth et al. (47) also demonstrated in dogs the effectiveness of dobutamine and dopamine as possible alternatives to ephedrine for the pharmacologic correction of the noncardiac circulatory sequela of total spinal anesthesia. Goertz et al. (48) investigated the effect of ephedrine on left ventricular function in patients without cardiovascular disease under high thoracic epidural analgesia combined with general anesthesia. Ephedrine improved left ventricular contractility without causing relevant changes of left ventricular afterload.
Cardiovascular effects of CSEGA
Combining epidural analgesia with general anesthesia in humans reduces the hemodynamic demand on the heart (49-51) and provides more stable intraoperative hemodynamics (52). In animal experiments epidural analgesia has inhibited sympathetic coronary constriction secondary to a flow-limiting stenosis (53), reduced infarct size (54) and reduced ST-segment changes on the electrocardiogram in an acute coronary artery occlusion model (55). However, Mergner et al. (56) investigated epidural analgesia combined with general anesthesia in a swine model with a tight coronary artery stenosis. Distal to the coronary stenosis was a moderate decrease in regional myocardial function and a severe reduction in blood flow. The epidural analgesia reaching the level of T1 was added to an animal which already had a decreased blood pressure and sympathetic tone from the isoflurane/fentanyl anesthesia. No correction of the reduced blood pressure was done in this study. Stenseth et al. (57) investigated the cardiovascular and metabolic effects of T1-T12 epidural block in 18 patients receiving chronic beta-adrenergic blocker medication and scheduled for aortocoronary bypass surgery. Thoracic epidural analgesia induced a moderate decrease in mean arterial pressure, coronary perfusion pressure, free fatty acids and myocardial consumption of free fatty acids. Blomberg et al. (58,59) also found no cardiac effects after a T1-T8 or T1-T6 block in beta-adrenergic blocked patients with ischemic heart disease. Christensen et al. (60) evaluated myocardial ischemic events by Holter monitoring of ST-segment depression in 14 patients with angina pectoris given spinal analgesia for minor surgery. Ephedrine in doses of 5 mg was given, if rapid infusion of saline did not improve the arterial pressure.The first ischemic event occurred at a mean of 338 minutes after spinal analgesia, and not in association with the onset of block, with the decrease in mean arterial pressure after spinal analgesia or with the administration of ephedrine. This could be explained by increased cardiac pre- and afterload, probably further aggravated by the volume load.
Cord ischemia and preemptive analgesia
Breckwoldt
et al. (61) investigated the effect of intrathecal tetracaine on the
neurological sequelae of spinal cord ischemia and reperfusion with aortic
occlusion in rabbits. They found that intrathecal tetracaine significantly and
dramatically abrogated the neurological injury secondary to spinal cord
ischemia and reperfusion after aortic occlusion at 30 minutes. Peripheral
tissue injury provokes two kinds of modification in the responsiveness of the
nervous system: peripheral sensitization and central sensitization. The optimal
form of pain treatment may be one that is applied both pre-, intra-, and
postoperatively to preempt the establishment of pain hypersensitivity during
and after surgery. Woolf and Chong (62) in their review of preemptive analgesia
concluded that "although evolution has conserved sensitization in humans,
the capacity to inflict `controlled injury` during surgery has clearly not been
anticipated".
The Serbian Experience
Type and technique of anesthesia have an
important effect on peri-operative surgical course (63). The aim of the study
by Malenkovic, Zoric and Randelovic (64)
was prospective analyses of advantages of combined spinal, epidural and general
anesthesia (CSEGA) versus general anesthesia (GA) in abdominal surgery
according to: 1. Operative course (hemodynamic stability of patients, quality
of analgesia, undesirables effects), 2. Postoperative course (quality of
analgesia, unfavourable effects, temporary abode of patients in intensive
care). Using prospective randomized double blind controlled study, Malenkovic et al. evaluated two groups of patients whom
the same type of abdominal surgical intervention was planned and the only difference
was the type of technique of anesthesia. First group of patients (n = 34), was
treated with CSEGA and second group of patients (n = 33), was treated only with
standard (GA). Both groups had intraoperative and 24-hour-long postoperative
continued monitoring of blood pressure, central venous pressure, and diuresis.
In the 24 hours postoperative period, the following parameters were analyzed:
vigilance conditions, motor block level, pain intensity in rest and movement,
necessity for a complementary analgesia, side effects and final subjective
effect of analgesia. There was important difference in waking up the patients
after a general anesthesia. In the first group this period was shorter. In the
first 24 hours, patients from the first group didn't get any systemic
analgesic, while the patients from the second group needed fractionary
application of parenteral analgesics in the period of 4-6 hours. Patients from
the first group were also physically faster and easier recovered and they had
less respiratory complications and there was not any example of thromboembolsm
and the intestine motility was faster re-established. First group of patients
spent less time in intensive care (three days) than second group (six days).
Final subjective effect of analgesia, according to verbal descriptive scale
(VDS) of pain was satisfying with 75% of patients of the first group and 15% of
patients of the second group. According to results investigation, advantages of
CSEGA versus GA in abdominal surgery were manifold: better hemodynamic
stability and perfusion of operative region, decrease of single doses of opioid
analgesics, local and general anesthetics followed by the decrease of their
side effects, better intensity and longer duration of analgesia and improved
total functional capability of patients (64).
Zoric et al. (65) have been routinely practicing their technique of CSEGA in
big abdominal and thoraco-abdominal surgery, since 1997. Their study is a
retrospective analysis of the technique and its clinical observations, during
4.5 years, which include 293 patients. They performed combined spinal-epidural
anaesthesia (CSE) in one or two interspinal spaces, depending on the type of
surgery, but always before induction of general anaesthesia (GA). For
preemptive and intraoperative analgesia they used 0.25% plain bupivacaine (B),
both for spinal (SA) and epidural (ED) blockade. The most important detail in
their technique is analgesic solution (AS) which contained Bupivacaine (B) 4.5
mg, fentanyl (Fe) 50 mcg and morphine hydrochloride (Mo) 0.2 mg, in total
volume of 3 ml, in SA. After the ED test dose with 2% lidocaine 60 mg (3 ml),
before the induction of GA, they injected more 10 ml B, but intraoperative
analgesia was almost performed with B 3 to 5 ml in intermittent bolus doses.
This ED bolus doses was particularly important, partly to sufficiently cephalic
migration of the SA somatosensory block, as well as for intraoperative
analgesia. For very light GA only artificial ventilation with 66% N2O in O2 and
muscle relaxation with pancuronium was needed. Co analgesia with intravenous
Fe, was exceptionally seldom needed, except for induction. Intraoperative drugs
consumption was very small. With adequate liquid compensation, this technique
achieved exceptionally intraoperative hemodynamic stability in patients,
despite too long and big operations. Postoperative analgesia are supplied by SA
the first 24 hours, but for the next 72
hours it was performed with intermittent
ED bolus doses of 0.12% B with 2 mg Mo in total volume of 15 ml and 10 ml,
depending on the epidural catheter position in lumbar or thoracic part of
spine. The breakthrough of postoperative pain was between 20% to 34%, which was
suppressed with metamisol. According to the verbal rating scale (VRS < 1)
90% of patients were satisfied with this analgesia, which gave possibilities to
mobilization and rehabilitation even in the first postoperative day. All
clinical signs showed that thanks to inhibition of spinal and supraspinal
sensitization, all principles of the preemptive analgesia (PA), inhibition of
neuro-hormonal stress reaction were met and postoperative outcome was improved
and satisfied. The complications were insignificant, in time observed and
without any consequences (65).
CSEGA for Urologic Operations
The appropriate anesthesia for renal transplantation requires minimal toxicity
for patients and for the transplanted organ, as well as sufficient pain relief
and maintenance of vital functions. The aim of the study by Hadimioglu et al.
(66) was to determine how the anesthetic
technique influences the outcome in patients after renal transplantation in
terms of preoperative and intraoperative hemodynamic changes and blood gas
changes. Fifty adult patients undergoing renal transplantation were randomly
divided into two groups receiving standardized general anesthesia or combined
spinal and epidural anesthesia. Demographically both groups were similar. Total
anesthesia time (202 +/- 53 vs 186 +/- 37 minutes) and surgical time (191 +/-
52 vs 162 +/- 31 minutes) did not differ between the groups. The heart rate and
systolic blood pressure values of the groups as measured before induction and
5, 15, 20, 30, as well as 60 minutes thereafter did not differ between the
groups. Neither the frequency of bradycardia (four vs two) nor of hypotension
(six vs four) during anesthesia differed between regional versus general
anesthesia groups. Regional is an important alternative to general anesthesia
during renal transplantation surgery in adult patients.
Nakano et al. (67)
evaluated the efficacy of combined lumbar spinal and epidural (CLSE)
anesthesia in retropubic radical prostatectomy. Twenty consecutive patients who
underwent radical retropubic prostatectomy by a single surgeon (H.K.) under
CLSE anesthesia from July of 2003 to February of 2004 were selected as
subjects. They were compared with 20 consecutive patients who underwent radical
retropubic prostatectomy performed by the same surgeon under combined general
and epidural (CGE) anesthesia from April to December of 2002. Both periods were
carefully selected to exclude radical prostatectomies with intraoperative
complications to evaluate genuine effects of anesthesia. For lumbar spinal
anesthesia, 0.5% hyperbaric bupivacaine hydrochloride or 0.5% hyperbaric
tetracaine hydrochloride (dissolved in a 10% glucose solution) was used. An
epidural tube was inserted for both lumbar spinal anesthesia and general
anesthesia mainly for the purpose of controlling pain after operation.
Intraoperative blood loss was significantly less in the CLSE anesthesia group
compared with CGE anesthesia group (p = 0.024). Postoperative water drinking
was started at 0.4 days (average) for CLSE anesthesia and at 1.1 days (average)
for CGE anesthesia (p < 0.0001). Postoperative diet was begun at 0.7 days
(average) for CLSE anesthesia and at 1.5 days (average) for CGE anesthesia (p
< 0.0001). Compared with the CLSE anesthesia group, the mean of the highest
intraoperative mean blood pressure was significantly higher in the CGE
anesthesia group (p = 0.002). Intraoperative blood loss was less,
intraoperative change in blood pressure was less and recovery of postoperative
intestinal peristalsis was earlier in patients who underwent prostatectomy
under CLSE anesthesia than in patients who underwent prostatectomy under CGE
anesthesia.
Various general and regional anesthesia methods are used
successfully in living-donor kidney transplantation. Sener et al. (68) compared
kidney graft function after general versus combined spinal-epidural anesthesia
for donor nephrectomy. The study groups included recipients who received grafts
from donors who had undergone nephrectomy under general anesthesia (GA group;
n=10), and recipients who received grafts from donors who had combined
spinal-epidural anesthesia (CSE group, n=10). Standard continuous epidural
anesthesia was administered during all transplantations. Graft function was
assessed using scintigraphy and Doppler ultrasonography on days 3 and 7. Urine
levels of microalbumin, creatinine, and creatinine clearance rate were
measured/calculated in 24-hour urine samples collected on postoperative days 3
and 7. There were no differences on either day 3 or day 7 with respect to
glomerular filtration rate, microalbuminuria, or creatinine clearance rate (P
>.05 for all). There were also no differences between the groups with
respect to other scintigraphic findings on day 3 or day 7 (P >.05 for all).
Ultrasonography on day 7 showed significantly higher mean peak systolic flow in
the main renal artery in the CSE group than in the GA group (P=.035). The
results suggest that GA and CSE for donor nephrectomy have similar effects on
kidney graft function in recipients.
Fichtner et al. (69) evaluated the
possibility of a perineal radical prostatectomy (PRP) under spinal anaesthesia,
as although it is usually done under general anesthesia, there is currently a
need to minimize costs and morbidity. Between January and December 2003, there
were 337 PRPs at their institution, of which 47 were on patients under combined
spinal/epidural (CSE) anesthesia administered via a standard L3/4 or L4/5
approach. They analysed the feasibility of PRP under CSE and evaluated
perioperative morbidity, including blood loss and hospital stay. All 47
procedures were done under CSE with no need for conversion to general
anaesthesia. The mean (range) duration of PRP was 56 (43-112) min, the mean
blood loss 270 mL, and the transurethral catheter was removed at 7 days in 40
and at 14 days in the remaining seven patients. There were no complications
during surgery, e.g. rectal or ureteric lesions. The mean hospital stay was 8.2
days. PRP is safe under CSE anaesthesia; this may be helpful in minimizing
morbidity and medical costs, as well as providing an alternative in patients in
whom general anaesthesia is not recommended.
Kararmaz et al. (70)
designed a double-blinded, randomized, controlled study to evaluate the
effect of small-dose ketamine IV in combination with epidural morphine and
bupivacaine on postoperative pain after renal surgery. An epidural catheter was
inserted, and the administration of morphine and bupivacaine was started before
surgery. Forty patients were assigned to one of two groups (ketamine or
control). The ketamine group was administered a ketamine bolus and infusion
during surgery. The median visual analog pain scale (VAS) scores at rest were
significantly lower in the ketamine group during the first 6 h (P < 0.01).
VAS pain scores on coughing were also significantly lower in the ketamine group
(P < 0.01). Cumulative postoperative total analgesic consumption was less in
the ketamine group on Days 1 and 2 (P < 0.001). The first analgesic demand
time was shorter in the control group (9.2 +/- 11.5 min) than in the ketamine
group (22.3 +/- 17.1 min) (P < 0.0001). The incidence of nausea and pruritus
was more frequent in the control group (P < 0.05). In conclusion,
postoperative analgesia was more effective when spinal cord and brain
sensitization were blocked by a combination of epidural morphine/bupivacaine
and IV ketamine. Renal nociception conducted multisegmentally by both the
spinal nerves (T10 to L1) and the vagus nerve cannot be blocked by epidural
analgesia alone. It was demonstrated that IV ketamine had an improved analgesic
or opioid-sparing effect when it was combined with epidural bupivacaine and
morphine after renal surgery.
A variety of drugs and techniques have been introduced into ambulatory
anaesthesia. The technique as well as the drugs used may hasten or delay home
discharge. Erhan et al. (71) compared recovery profiles and side-effects of
spinal anaesthesia and total intravenous anaesthesia. Forty unpremedicated ASA
I-II patients (18-65 yr) undergoing varicocele repair were randomly divided
into two groups. Spinal anaesthesia (26-G atraumatic needle) with hyperbaric
bupivacaine 0.5% 5 mg and fentanyl 25 microg were given to patients in Group
Spinal (n = 20). Patients in Group TIVA (n = 20) received total intravenous
anaesthesia with propofol and remifentanil given by continuous infusion; a
laryngeal mask was used to secure the airway. The duration of surgery, time to
home readiness and side-effects were recorded. The two groups were comparable
with respect to patients' characteristics and duration of surgery. The times to
achieve ambulation were similar between groups (Spinal = 78.4 +/- 40.9 min,
TIVA = 75.9 +/- 13.8 min). Urinary voiding was a requirement for discharge
after spinal anaesthesia and the time for home readiness was longer in Group
Spinal (158.0 +/- 40.2 versus 94.9 +/- 18.8 min) (P < 0.05). Two patients
reported pruritus and one reported postdural puncture headache in Group Spinal,
whereas two patients reported nausea in Group TIVA. Patients in Group TIVA had
a greater need for analgesia postoperation (P < 0.05). In healthy
unpremedicated men undergoing minor urological operations, total intravenous
anaesthesia with remifentanil and propofol provided as safe and effective
anesthesia as spinal block with the advantage of earlier home readiness.
Liu et al. (72) compared the analgesic effect of lumbar intrathecal (IT) 0.5 mg
morphine (Group M, n = 10), 50 microg sufentanil (Group S, n = 10), and their
combination (Group S-M, n = 10) given before general anesthesia and
patient-controlled analgesia with IV morphine (Group C, n = 19) in a
randomized, double-blinded study performed in patients undergoing thoracotomy.
Pain visual analog scale (VAS) and morphine consumption were assessed for 24 h.
In Group S-M the number of patients initially titrated with IV morphine was
less than in group C (30 vs 84%, P < 0.05). Morphine requirement was higher
in Group C (71 +/- 30 mg) than in Groups S (46 +/- 34 mg, P < 0.05), M (38
+/- 31 mg, P < 0.05) and S-M (23 +/- 16 mg, P < 0.01). VAS scores were
significantly decreased during the first 0-11 postoperative h at rest and during
the first 0-8 postoperative h on coughing in Groups M and S-M rather than in
Group C. The incidence of side effects was infrequent except for urinary
retention. Preoperative IT morphine or combined sufentanil and morphine could
be given as a booster to achieve rapidly effective analgesia in the immediate
postoperative period. As compared with IV patient-controlled analgesia,
intrathecal morphine or combined sufentanil and morphine provided superior
postoperative pain relief both at rest (11 h) and on coughing (8 h) than did IV
patient-controlled analgesia morphine alone. IV morphine requirement was
decreased during the first postoperative day after posterolateral thoracotomy.
Urologic patients have overlap disturbances in many organ systems, especially
in urinary system with cardiovascular and respiratory system. During extensive
urologic operations Ladjevic and Vesovic (73) perform general anesthesia in
most cases. General anesthesia provides organ vital function under best
control. Patients with severe respiratory disease undergoing surgery in
regional anesthesia (spinal or epidural with or without epidural catheter, or
in combined spinal-epidural anesthesia).
The effect of combined epidural anesthesia and epidural
morphine injection is discussed (74). A group of 98 patients (group A), chosen
at random, was operated on under such combined anesthesia and compared to a
similar group of 98 patients (group B), equally chosen at random, operated on
under either spinal or general anesthesia with no epidural morphine added. Over
87% of group A needed no narcotic drugs for postoperative pain. All patients in
the group B needed 60-80 mg of morphine during the first 48 postoperative
hours. The quantity of morphine required was the main parameter for comparison.
The postoperative course in group A was considerably easier while the operative
results were equal in both groups.
CSEGA for Obstetric and Gynecologic
Operations
Spinal anesthesia is the technique most often applied in cases of scheduled cesarean
section. Many authors have tried decreasing the local anesthetic dose by adding
opioids to achieve adequate analgesia with greater hemodynamic stability,
although the ideal dose remains to be established. Guasch et al. (75) analyzed
hemodynamic stability and quality of analgesia with 2 different regimens for
administering spinal hyperbaric bupivacaine. They designed a controlled,
double-blind trial comparing 2 doses of spinal hyperbaric bupivacaine with
fentanyl in 42 patients undergoing elective cesarean section randomized to 2
groups to receive either the low dose or the conventional one. One group
received an 11 mg dose of bupivacaine and the other group received a 6.5 mg
dose, combined with 20 microg of fentanyl in both cases. The hemodynamic profile
and the level of maximum sensory block obtained were similar in the two groups.
The motor block was less intense in patients receiving the lower dose and it
was necessary to convert 2 patients (10%) to general anesthesia in that group.
Spinal anesthesia with low doses of bupivacaine and fentanyl provides
acceptable intraoperative conditions for a high percentage of patients
undergoing cesarean section, with a similar incidence of hypotension. The low
dose generates a less intense intraoperative motor blockade with similar spread
of the sensory block. The low dose was not efficacious for 10% of the patients
who received it.
A prospective survey of anesthesia for cesarean section was
performed for the year 1 January to
Machado-Joseph disease is a form of progressive spino-cerebellar ataxia with
both bulbar and peripheral neurological manifestations. General anesthesia may
be problematic because of the risk of pulmonary aspiration and hypoxia. Teo et
al. (77) described their experience with the successful use of combined
spinal-epidural in a patient with Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD). A 38-year-old
woman with MJD complicated by significant bulbar and peripheral neuropathy
presented for an elective vaginal hysterectomy. She had no other medical
history of note. After informed consent, subarachnoid block was performed by
combined spinal-epidural anesthesia at the L2-3 lumbar intervertebral space
with hyperbaric bupivacaine 12 mg, morphine 100 microg, and fentanyl 10 microg.
Surgery proceeded uneventfully, with excellent postoperative analgesia. There
was full recovery of preinduction neurologic function by the sixth
postoperative hour. Central neuraxial anesthesia is an option for patients with
MJD presenting for lower abdominal and lower extremity operations. Combined
spinal-epidural anesthesia confers hemodynamic stability yet allows for
augmentation of intraoperative anesthesia and postoperative analgesia.
Pre-eclampsia is a multisystemic disorder that is characterised by endothelial cell
dysfunction as a consequence of abnormal genetic and immunological mechanisms.
Despite active research for years, the exact etiology of this potentially fatal
disorder remains unknown. Although understanding of the pathophysiology of
pre-eclampsia has improved, management has not changed significantly over the
years. Anesthetic management of these patients remains a challenge. Although
general anesthesia can be used safely in pre-eclamptic women, it is fraught
with greater maternal morbidity and mortality. Currently, the safety of
regional anesthesia techniques is well established and they can provide better
obstetrical outcome when chosen properly. Thus, regional anaesthesia is
extensively used for the management of pain and labour in women with pre-eclampsia.
Mandal and Suprapaneni (78) highlighted the advantages and disadvantages of
regional anesthetic techniques including epidural, spinal and combined
spinal-epidural analgesia, used as a part of the management of pre-eclampsia.
Petropoulos et al. (79) compared general, epidural and
combined spinal-epidural anesthesia with respect to short-term outcome of
newborns delivered by elective Cesarean section of healthy parturients with
normal pregnancies. A total of 238 pregnant women admitted between January 1998
and July 2002, for whom elective Cesarean section was planned after 38 weeks'
gestation, were grouped according to the kind of anesthesia used for the
procedure. Maternal characteristics, birth weight, Apgar scores, and maternal
and umbilical artery (UA) acid-base parameters were analyzed. Maternal pH was
significantly lower and pCO2 and pO2 were significantly higher in the general
anesthetic group, compared to the other two groups (7.38 +/- 0.03 vs. 7.43 +/-
0.02 and 7.43 +/- 0.05, respectively; 35.03 +/- 3.88 mmHg vs. 29.25 +/- 5.05
mmHg and 29.64 +/- 4.16 mmHg, respectively; and 224.56 +/- 86.77 mmHg vs.
151.28 +/- 38 mmHg and 157.36 +/- 53.51 mmHg, respectively, p < 0.05). The
pH of the UA was higher in the general anesthetic group, compared to the
spinal-epidural group (7.29 +/- 0.02 vs. 7.26 +/- 0.06, p < 0.05). The pO2
as well as O2 saturation of the UA were higher when general anesthetic was
administered, compared to the two regional modalities (15.60 +/- 5.48 mmHg vs.
9.29 +/- 4.41 mmHg and 9.20 +/- 4.06 mmHg, respectively; and 17.37 +/- 9.79%
vs. 7.87 +/- 4.98% and 6.90 +/- 5.22%, respectively, p < 0.05). UA O2
saturation fell to zero in some cases in the combined spinal-epidural group,
without an evident effect on fetal well-being. No fetal acidemia was noted in
any group. Neonatal outcomes were similar in the three groups studied. Type of
anesthesia does not influence short-term outcomes in infants born via elective
Cesarean section, although differences in acid-base status of both the mother
and especially the newborn recommend careful use of spinal anesthesia.
Epidural blockade is an important option for anesthesia in parturients
undergoing abdominal delivery. Despite the multiple benefits of this method,
there is at least one significant downside--a relatively high occurrence of
unsatisfactory anesthesia that requires intervention. Depending on the presumed
mechanism of epidural block failure and other clinically relevant factors
(e.g., timing of diagnosis, urgency of the procedure, and so forth), certain
effective measures are recommended to successfully manage this demanding
situation. In general, it is important to make every effort to make the
pre-existing epidural effective or replace it with another regional technique,
because overall, regional anesthesia is associated with significantly lower
maternal mortality. It is important to identify a dysfunctional epidural block
preoperatively before a maximum volume of local anesthetic has been
administered. If catheter manipulation does not produce substantial
improvement, and there is no time constraint, it is safe and reasonable to
replace the epidural catheter. However, risks associated with excessive volume
of local anesthetic should be kept in mind. Additional epidural injections or a
second catheter placement might be considered under special circumstances.
Single-shot spinal anesthesia after a failed epidural may provide fast onset
and reliable surgical anesthesia. Available data, although limited and
contradictory, suggest the possibility of unpredictably high or total spinal
anesthesia. Many authors, however, believe that appropriate precautions and
modifications in technique make this a safe alternative. These modifications
include limiting the amount of epidural local anesthetic administered when
diagnosing a nonfunctioning epidural and decreasing the dose of intrathecal
local anesthetic by 20% to 30%. If there is no documented block when the spinal
is inserted, and more than 30 minutes have passed from the last epidural dose,
it is probably safe to use a normal dose of local anesthetic. Continuous spinal
anesthesia with a macro catheter might be a dependable alternative,
particularly if large amounts of local anesthetic have already been used or the
patient's airway is a cause for concern. Although there are no reports of
combined spinal epidural anesthesia being used in this context, it would appear
to be an attractive alternative. It allows the anesthesiologist to give smaller
doses intrathecally, while still offering the flexibility of augmenting the
block if needed. When inadequate epidural block becomes apparent during surgery
there are limited alternatives. Depending on the origin and the pattern of
inadequate anesthesia, options may include psychological support, supplementation
with a variety of inhalational and intravenous agents, and local anesthetic
infiltration. Induction of general anesthesia is typically left as a backup
option, but must be strongly considered if the patient continues to have
pain/discomfort (80).
Danelli et al. (81) compared the preparation and discharge
times, the side-effects and patient satisfaction after gynaecological
outpatient procedures performed using either spinal block or total intravenous
anaesthesia with propofol and remifentanil. 40 healthy females scheduled for
hysteroscopic ablation of endometrial neoplasm were randomly allocated to
receive either a spinal block with bupivacaine 0.5% hyperbaric solution 10 mg
(n = 20) or total intravenous anaesthesia with propofol and remifentanil (n = 20).
Preparation and discharge times, as well as occurrence of untoward events and
anesthesia-related costs, were recorded. The median (range) preparation time
was 7 (7-10) min with general anaesthesia, and 11 (7-21) min with spinal block
(P = 0.00005). No differences in discharge time from the postanesthesia care
unit and incidence of hypotension or bradycardia, or both, were reported
between the two groups. Hospital discharge times were 156 (101-345) min after
general anaesthesia and 296 (195-720) min after spinal anesthesia (P = 0.0005).
Acceptance of the anesthesia technique was better after general (100%) than
after spinal anesthesia (75%) (P = 0.04). No differences in total costs were
reported between spinal block and propofol-remifentanil general anaesthesia.
Accurate titration of short-acting intravenous anesthetic drugs such as
propofol and remifentanil results in shorter preparation times and earlier home
discharge after outpatient gynecological procedures compared with spinal
anesthesia with hyperbaric bupivacaine 10 mg, with better patient acceptance
and no increased costs.
Ramanathan et al. (82) evaluated the quality of anesthesia for cesarean
delivery (CD), analgesia for labor (LA), hemodynamic changes, and neonatal
effects of combined spinal and epidural anesthesia (CSE) with low intrathecal
doses of bupivacaine and fentanyl in patients with severe preeclampsia. Of the
85 patients with severe preeclampsia (systolic pressures [SBP] > or = 160 mm
Hg or diastolic pressures [DBP] > or = 110 mm Hg, and proteinuria > or =
100 mg/dL), 46 underwent CD and 39 delivered vaginally. The CD group received
7.5 mg of hyperbaric bupivacaine and 25 microg fentanyl intrathecally with a
goal of obtaining a T4 sensory block. Those with levels less than T4 received
2% lidocaine epidurally to extend the block. In the LA group, the intrathecal
dose was 1.25 mg of plain bupivacaine with 25 microg of fentanyl, followed by
epidural infusion of 0.0625% to 0.125% bupivacaine with 2 to 4 microg
fentanyl/mL at 12 to 15 mL/h. In the CD group, all but 4 patients had > or =
T4 block, and these 4 patients received 2% lidocaine epidurally. None required
conversion to general anesthesia. In the LA group, sensory levels were T10
(range, T6-L2) with adequate analgesia. The baseline mean arterial pressure
(MAP) was 122 +/- 13 mm Hg in the CD group and 117 +/- 12 mm Hg in the LA
group. After CSE, MAP decreased significantly and reached a nadir within 5
minutes in both groups (103 +/- 12 mm Hg in the CD group and 96 +/- 13 mm Hg in
the LA group, P <.05). The maximum decrease in MAP was similar in the 2
groups (-15% +/- 8% in the CD group and -16% +/- 9% in the LA group). The
neonatal Apgar scores and umbilical artery (UA) pH were similar, and there were
no significant correlations between UA pH and lowest MAP before delivery or the
maximum percentage change in MAP in either group. The results indicate that CSE
with low intrathecal doses of bupivacaine and epidural supplementation, when
needed, produces adequate anesthesia for CD and analgesia for labor in patients
with severe preeclampsia. The maximum decreases in MAP after CSE were modest
and quite similar in the 2 groups.
Expert and aggressive pre-operative preparation of the woman with severe
pre-eclampsia will ultimately determine her intraoperative outcome. Such
considerations as the effect of endotracheal manipulation on intracranial
pressure, of thrombocytopenia on the potential to produce a compressive
epidural hematoma following epidural or combined spinal-epidural neuraxial
block and of adequacy of invasive monitoring for Cesarean section loom large in
the eyes of an anesthetist preparing such a patient for surgery. Time spent
pre-operatively in fluid volume optimization, in assessment of ventricular
function, filling pressures and systemic vascular resistance, on aspiration
pneumonitis and seizure prophylaxis, on control of hypertension, on correction
of coagulopathy and on attenuation of pressor responses is time well spent and
will have profound effects on the peri-operative course. The choice of agents
and techniques for control of hypertension and reduction of vascular
resistance, for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia, for eclampsia
prophylaxis and for regional anesthesia or analgesia for operative or
spontaneous delivery is, likewise, important and, at times, problematic (83).
Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) are major problems after gynecological
surgery. Callesen et al. (84) studied 40 patients undergoing total abdominal
hysterectomy, allocated randomly to receive opioid-free epidural-spinal
anesthesia or general anesthesia with continuous epidural bupivacaine 15 mg h-1
or continuous bupivacaine 10 mg h-1 with epidural morphine 0.2 mg h-1,
respectively, for postoperative analgesia. Nausea, vomiting, pain and bowel
function were scored on 4-point scales for 3 days. Patients undergoing general
anesthesia had significantly higher nausea and vomiting scores (P < 0.01)
but significantly lower pain scores during rest (P < 0.05) and mobilization
(P < 0.01). More patients undergoing general anesthesia received antiemetics
(13 vs five; P < 0.05), but fewer received supplementary opioids on the ward
(eight vs 16; P < 0.05). It was concluded that opioid-free epidural-spinal
anesthesia for hysterectomy caused less PONV, but with less effective analgesia
compared with general anesthesia with postoperative continuous epidural
morphine and bupivacaine.
Incomplete anesthesia is a major clinical problem both in single
spinal and in single epidural anesthesia. The clinical efficacy of epidural
anesthesia with augmentation (aEA) and combined epidural and spinal anesthesia
(CSE) for cesarean section was investigated in a prospective randomized study
on 45 patients (85). Anesthesia extending up to Th5 was aimed for. Depending on
the patient's height, epidural anesthesia was administered with a dose of 18-22
ml 0.5% bupivacaine and spinal anesthesia with a dose of 11-15 mg 0.5%
bupivacaine. Augmentation was carried out in all cases in epidural anesthesia,
initially with 7.5 ml 1% Lidocaine with epinephrine 1:400,000, raised by 1.5 ml
per missing segment. The epidural reinjection in CSE was carried out as
necessary with 9.5-15 ml 1% lidocaine with epinephrine, depending on the height
and difference from the segment Th5. The extension of anesthesia achieved in
epidural anaesthesia after an initial dose of 101.8 mg bupivacaine and
augmenting dose of 99 mg lidocaine reached the segment Th5. The primary spinal
anesthesia dose up to 15 mg corresponding to height led to a segmental
extension to a maximum of Th3 under CSE. Augmentation was necessary in 13
patients; in 5 cases because of inadequate extent of anesthesia and 8 cases
because of pain resulting from premature reversion. The augmenting dose
required was 13.9 ml. Readiness for operation was attained after 19.8 min (aEA)
and after 10.5 min (CSE). No patient required analgesics before delivery. The
additional analgesic requirement during operation was 63.6% (aEA) and 39.1% (CSE).
Taking into account pain in the area of surgery, the requirement of analgesics
was 50% (aEA) vs. 17.4% (CSE). Antiemetics were required in 18.2 (aEA) and in
65.2% (CSE). The systolic blood pressure fell by 17.7% (aEA) and in 30.3%
(CSE). The minimum systolic pressure was observed after 13.4 min in aEA, and
after 9.5 min in CSE. The APGAR score and the umbilical pH did not show any
differences. General anesthesia was not required in any case.
Albright and Forster (86) reviewed if patients who receive combined
spinal-epidural (CSE) analgesia with subarachnoid sufentanil have an increased
incidence of emergency cesarean delivery for fetal distress when compared with
patients who receive systemic or no medication (S/NM) for labor analgesia. A
retrospective computerized analysis of data on all 2,560 deliveries at Bellevue
Woman's Hospital for 14 months summarized practice parameters for 1,240
patients who received regional analgesia (98% CSE analgesia), identified 1,140
patients who received S/NM, and classified the urgency of 479 cesarean
deliveries. In the CSE group there were 168 cesarean deliveries (emergency 16,
urgent 58, semiurgent 70, and nonurgent 24) as compared with a total of 128
(emergency 16, urgent 43, semiurgent 69, nonurgent 0) in the S/NM group.
Scheduled cesarean sections (180) were excluded from the study. The incidence
of emergency cesarean delivery in 1,217 patients who received CSE analgesia
with subarachnoid sufentanil (10-15 micrograms) compared with 1,140 patients
who received S/NM for labor analgesia was 1.3% versus 1.4%, respectively. More
importantly, there was no case in which emergency cesarean delivery was
required for acute fetal distress in the absence of obstetric factors during
the 90 minutes following administration of subarachnoid sufentanil. General
anesthesia was required for emergency cesarean delivery in only one patient
(6%) in the CSE group, as against eight patients (50%) in the S/NM group who
required general anesthesia for emergency cesarean section (P < .05). This
experience indicates that patients who receive CSE analgesia do not have a
higher incidence of emergency cesarean delivery than patients who have S/NM for
labor analgesia. Emergency cesarean section for fetal distress within 90
minutes of the administration of intrathecal sufentanil only occurred in
association with obstetric factors. However, caution should be exercised in
extrapolating these results to other practice settings, particularly high-risk
referral centers.
Forty-five patients scheduled for intra-abdominal gynecological surgeries,
ranging in age from 30 to 60 years, were anesthetized with combined
spinal-epidural (CSE) method using combined spinal-epidural needles inserted at
the L2-3 interspace (87). Ten minutes after intrathecal administration of 0.4%
isobaric tetracaine solution (2.5 ml) the upper level of analgesia was examined
by pin prick method and the patients were divided into the group A (N = 7;
anesthetic level > or = Th7), B (N = 7; Th8-10) and C (N = 31; Th11-L1)
according to their anesthetic levels. Target anesthetic level (Th4-7) was
obtained in group B by peridural administration of 2% mepivacaine in a dose of
5 ml and the surgery was performed. However, in group C, mepivacaine 7 ml was
insufficient to obtain the target anesthetic level and additional mepivacaine
was necessary for the surgery. In group A, no mepivacaine was used in the first
hour of the surgery. In all patients, except one in group C, in whom general
anesthesia was used after insufficient segmental analgesia, anesthesia was
maintained by the CSE technique. It was concluded that adequate anesthetic
level for the intra-abdominal surgery can be obtained by intrathecal isobaric
tetracaine administration combined with peridural mepivacaine of a dose
calculated according to the anesthetic level ten minutes after the spinal
block.
Regional anesthesia for abdominal hysterectomy is commonly combined with heavy
sedation or light general anesthesia in order to avoid the occurrence of
visceral pain. Clinical experience has indicated that this pain can be
controlled using regional anesthesia techniques alone. In an effort to find the
optimal technique, Mihic and Abram (88) randomly assigned 200 ASA and I and II
patients who requested regional anesthesia for abdominal hysterectomy (with or
without elective appendicectomy) to one of five groups: 1) subarachnoid
bupivacaine; 2) subarachnoid bupivacaine plus intravenous midazolam and
buprenorphine; 3) epidural bupivacaine; 4) epidural bupivacaine plus epidural
morphine; 5) subarachnoid bupivacaine plus epidural morphine and bupivacaine.
The last combination provided by far the best analgesia. Only two of 40
patients complained of slight discomfort, and this was easily controlled.
Success rates correlated also with the height of the blockade. It was concluded
that the combination of subarachnoid bupivacaine plus epidural morphine and
bupivacaine represents an effective and reliable technique for abdominal
hysterectomy with or without elective appendicectomy.
A prospective study was carried out to compare the qualities of spinal block
with those of combined spinal-epidural anesthesia (CSEA)(89). It included 63
patients, ranked ASA 1 or 2, aged between 35 and 75 years, scheduled for
gynecological surgery due to last more than 2 hours, and randomly allocated to
two groups. In the first group (n = 34), spinal anesthesia was carried out with
the patients sitting, in the L3-4 interspace, using 15 mg of hyperbaric
bupivacaine with 0.4 mg of adrenaline. In the second group (n = 29), a catheter
was inserted in the epidural space through the L2-3 interspace, and spinal
anesthesia carried out as in the first group, using bupivacaine without
adrenaline. Once the highest level of analgesia had been reached, aliquots of
0.5% plain bupivacaine were injected through the epidural catheter, until
anesthesia of T5 was obtained. In the spinal group, general anesthesia was
required in 3 cases, as anesthesia only reached the T12 level in 2 cases, and
as surgery lasted longer than the spinal in the third one. In the CSEA group,
excellent analgesia was obtained in all patients. Sensory blockade lasted 308
+/- 48 min at the T12 level, versus 162 +/- 51 min in the spinal group (p <
0.025), and 361 +/- 51 min at the L2 level, versus 210 < 44 min in the other
group (p < 0.025). "Topping up" was possible with the epidural
catheter only, thus raising the level of sensory blockade, making it deeper,
and increasing its duration. It avoids the use of general anesthesia in case of
failed spinal blockade.
Dyer et al. (90) studied the neonatal outcome after spinal versus general
anesthesia for cesarean delivery in preeclamptic patients with a nonreassuring
fetal heart trace. This study examined both markers of neonatal hypoxia and
maternal hemodynamics. Seventy patients were randomized to general (n = 35) or
spinal anesthesia (n = 35). The general anesthesia group received thiopentone,
magnesium sulfate, and suxamethonium intravenously before intubation, followed
by 50% nitrous oxide in oxygen, 0.75-1.5% isoflurane, and morphine after
delivery. The target end-tidal partial pressure of carbon dioxide (Pco2) was
30-34 mmHg. The spinal anesthesia group received 1.8 ml hyperbaric bupivacaine
plus 10 microg fentanyl at the L3-L4 interspace. Heart rate and blood pressure
were measured at specific time points. Hypotension was treated with ephedrine.
Maternal arterial and neonatal umbilical arterial blood gas samples were taken
at delivery. Resuscitation requirements were recorded. In both groups,
hemodynamic measures remained within acceptable limits. Spinal anesthesia
patients required more ephedrine (13.7 vs. 2.7 mg). Maternal Paco2 was lower in
the spinal group (28.9 vs. 32.4 mmHg). One-minute Apgar scores were lower after
general anesthesia. Base deficit was greater (7.13 vs. 4.68 mEq/l) and neonatal
umbilical arterial pH was lower (7.20 vs. 7.23) after spinal anesthesia. Post
hoc analysis showed that if maternal diastolic blood pressure on admission was
greater than 110 mmHg, neonatal umbilical arterial base deficit was greater after
spinal anesthesia. There was no difference in the number of patients with Apgar
scores less than 7 at 1 or 5 min or umbilical arterial pH less than 7.2 or in
the requirements for resuscitation. In preeclamptic patients with a
nonreassuring fetal heart trace, spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery was
associated with a greater mean neonatal umbilical arterial base deficit and a
lower median umbilical arterial pH. The clinical significance remains to be
established. Maternal hemodynamics were similar and acceptable with either
anesthetic technique.
Most anesthetic and analgesic agents in current use
traverse the placental barrier in varying degrees, but are well tolerated by
the fetus if judiciously administered. For labor analgesia, many options are
available. Systemic administration of opioids and sedatives is one such option.
Repeated maternal administration of opioids such as pethidine (meperidine)
results in significant fetal exposure and neonatal respiratory depression.
Patient-controlled analgesia with synthetic opioids such as fentanyl,
alfentanil, and the new ultra-short-acting remifentanil may be used for labor
analgesia in selected patients.Other options for labor analgesia include
epidural and combined spinal-epidural techniques. With such techniques,
neonatal exposure to opioids and sedatives can be minimized or totally avoided.
While limiting the fetal exposure to the harmful effects of depressant drugs,
epidural anesthesia and/or analgesia improves placental perfusion and
oxygenation of the fetus, which is beneficial, especially in conditions such as
pregnancy-induced hypertension. Regional blocks are also administered for the
majority of cesarean deliveries because of the overwhelming and unequivocal
evidence of maternal and fetal safety compared with general anesthesia for this
indication. However, in some instances, administration of general anesthesia is
unavoidable. Neonatal respiratory depression with low Apgar scores, and
umbilical arterial and venous pH associated with general anesthesia, is often
transient. A properly administered anesthetic, whether regional or general, has
no significant adverse fetal or neonatal effects (91).
CSEGA for Abdominal Operations
The choice of anesthesia for groin hernia repair is between
general, regional (epidural or spinal), and local anesthesia. Existing data
from large consecutive patient series and randomized studies have shown local
anesthesia to be the method of choice because it can be performed by the
surgeon, does not necessarily require an attending anesthesiologist, translates
into the shortest recovery (bypassing the postanesthesia care unit), has the
lowest cost, and has the lowest postoperative morbidity regarding risk of
urinary retention. Spinal anesthesia has no documented benefits for this small
operation and should be avoided owing to the risk of rare neurologic side
effects and the high risk of urinary retention. General anesthesia with
short-acting agents may be a valid alternative when combined with local
infiltration anesthesia, although an anesthesiologist is required. Despite
sufficient scientific data to support the choice of anesthesia, large
epidemiologic and nationwide information from databases show an undesirable
high (about 10-20%) use of spinal anesthesia and low (about 10%) use of local
infiltration anesthesia. Surgeons and anesthesiologists should therefore adjust
their anesthesia practices to fit the available scientific evidence (92).
Although endoscopic totally extraperitoneal inguinal
hernioplasty (TEP) confers superior early outcomes compared to those of open
repair, the requirement of general anesthesia has been held as an argument
against the application of TEP by opponents of laparoscopic surgery. To date,
the literature on TEP performed under spinal anesthesia remains scarce. The
present study reports an early experience performing TEP under spinal
anesthesia in selected patients who were medically unfit for general anesthesia
(93). Between March 2003 and March 2004, 6 male patients underwent attempted
TEP under spinal anesthesia. Selection criteria for the procedure included
reducibility of the inguinal hernia and concomitant medical conditions
precluding general aesthesia, such as impaired lung function. All patients were
conscious and able to communicate verbally during the operation. TEP was
successfully completed in 4 patients, with a mean operative time of 33 minutes.
All 4 patients were asymptomatic and experienced no pain throughout the
procedure. Conversion to open repair was required in 2 patients because of
uncooperative movement in one, and inadequate neural blockade by spinal
anesthesia in the other. Intraoperative cardiorespiratory parameters were
stable in all patients. Postoperative urinary retention occurred in 1 patient.
The mean length of follow-up exceeded 3 months, and no seroma or recurrence was
detected clinically. Successful performance of TEP under spinal anesthesia
requires the combined efforts of an experienced anesthesiologist, a skilled
surgeon, and a cooperative patient. TEP under spinal anesthesia may have a role
in selected patients who are medically unfit for general anesthesia but are
otherwise suitable for TEP.
Preincisional ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerve block (IINB) reduces
postoperative analgesics after inguinal herniorrhaphy. The effect of an IINB on
postoperative pain and discharge profile was therefore studied in day-surgery
patients undergoing inguinal herniorrhaphy with general or spinal anesthesia
(94). Seventy ASA I-II adult patients scheduled for inguinal herniorrhaphy
received an IINB before the surgical incision with 15 ml of 0.5% bupivacaine.
In a randomized fashion half of them received general anaesthesia with
spontaneous breathing via a laryngeal mask (GA-group) and the other half
received spinal anesthesia with 5 mg of bupivacaine diluted with sterile water
to 2.5-ml volume (SPIN-group). In the postanaesthesia care unit (PACU), pain
was assessed on a scale from 0 to 10 (VAS) and ketorolac 30 mg i.v. (VAS <
5), or fentanyl 0.05 mg i.v. (VAS > or = 5) was administered as scheduled.
In the day surgery unit and at home the analgesic was a tablet of ibuprofen 200
mg + codeine 30 mg (VAS > or = 3). Patients in the SPIN-group reported lower
postoperative pain scores at 30, 60 min (P < 0.0001) and 120 min (P < 0.05)
after surgery, and longer time to first analgesic use (P < 0.0001). Patients
in the GA-group had a shorter time to discharge without voiding (P < 0.001)
and with voiding (P < 0.05). After discharge, there were no significant
differences between the groups regarding pain scores at rest and at walking, or
the doses of analgesic. Adverse events were rare in both groups. Only a
relatively short immediate analgesic benefit could be demonstrated by a
combination of IINB with spinal anaesthesia compared with IINB combined with
general anaesthesia. The use of general anaesthesia facilitated an earlier
postoperative discharge than spinal anesthesia.
Zoric et al. (95) have been routinely
practising their technique of CSEGA in big abdominal and thoraco-abdominal
surgery, since 1997. Their study (95) is a retrospective analysis of the
technique and clinical observations, during 4.5 years, which include 293
patients. They performed combined spinal-epidural anesthesia (CSE) in one or
two interspinal spaces, depending on the type of surgery, but always before
induction of general anesthesia (GA). For preemptive and intraoperative
analgesia they used 0.25% plain bupivacaine (B), both for spinal (SA) and
epidural (ED) blockade. The most important detail in their technique is analgesic
solution (AS) which contain B 4.5 mg, fentanyl (Fe) 50 mcg and morphine
hydrochloride (Mo) 0.2 mg, in total volume of 3 ml, in SA. After the ED test
dose with 2% lidocaine 60 mg (3 ml), before the induction of GA, they inject
more 10 ml B, but intraoperative analgesia is almost performed with B 3 to 5 ml
in intermittent bolus doses. This ED bolus dose is particularly important,
partly to sufficiently cephalic migration of the SA somatosensory block, as
well as for intraoperative analgesia. For very light GA only artificial
ventilation with 66% N2O in O2 and muscle relaxation with pancuronium is
needed. Co analgesia with intravenous Fe, was exceptionally seldom needed,
except for induction. Intraoperative drugs consumption was very small. With
adequate liquid compensation, this technique achieve exceptionally
intraoperative hemodynamic stability in patients, despite long and big
operations. Postoperative analgesia is supplied by SA for the first 24 hours,
but for the next 72 hours it is performed with intermittent ED bolus doses of
0.12% B with 2 mg Mo in total volume of 15 ml and 10 ml, depending on the
epidural catheter position in lumbar or
thoracic part of spine. The breakthrough of postoperative pain was between 20%
to 34%, which was suppressed with metamisol. According to the verbal rating
scale (VRS < 1) 90% patients were satisfied with this analgesia, which gave
possibilities to mobilization and rehabilitation even in the first postoperative day. All clinical
signs showed that thanks to inhibition
of spinal and supraspinal sensitization, all principles of the preemptive
analgesia (PA), inhibition of neuro-hormonal stress reaction is met and
postoperative outcome is improved and satisfied.
Type and technique of anesthesia have an important effect
on peri-operative surgical course. Malenkovic et al. (96) analysed the
advantages of combined spinal, epidural and general anesthesia (CSEGA) versus
general anesthesia (GA) in abdominal surgery according to: 1. Operative course
(haemodynamic stability of patients, quality of analgesia, undesirables
effects), 2. Postoperative course (quality of analgesia, unfavourable effects,
temporary abode of patients in intensive care). Using prospective randomized
double blind controlled study, they evaluated two groups of patients whom the
same type of abdominal surgical intervention was planned and the only
difference was the type of technique of anesthesia. First group of patients (n
= 34), was treated with CSEGA and the second group of patients (n = 33), was
treated only with standard (GA). Both groups had intraoperative and
24-hour-long postoperative continued monitoring of blood pressure, central
venous pressure, and diuresis. In the 24 hours postoperative period, the
following parameters were analyzed: vigilance conditions, motor block level,
pain intensity in rest and movement, necessity for a complementary analgesia,
side effects and final subjective effect of analgesia. There was important
difference in waking up the patients after a general anesthesia. In the first
group this period was shorter. In the first 24 hours, patients from the first
group didn't get any systemic analgesic, while the patients from the second
group needed fractionary application of parenteral analgesics in the period of
4-6 hours. Patients from the first group were also physically faster and easier
recovered and they had less respiratory complications and there was not any
example of thromboembolsm and the intestine motility was faster re-established.
First group of patients spent less time in intensive care (three days) than
second group (six days). Final subjective effect of analgesia, according to
verbal descriptive scale (VDS) of pain was satisfying with 75% of patients of
the first group and 15% of patients of the second group. According to results
investigation, advantages of CSEGA versus GA in abdominal surgery were
manifold: better hemodynamic stability and perfusion of operative region,
decrease of single doses of opioid analgesics, local and general anesthetics
followed by the decrease of their side effects, better intensity and longer
duration of analgesia and improved total functional capability of patients.
Dobrydnjov et al. (97) made a randomized double-blinded study in order to see
whether the addition of small-dose clonidine to small-dose bupivacaine for
spinal anesthesia prolonged the duration of postoperative analgesia and also
provided a sufficient block duration that would be adequate for inguinal
herniorrhaphy. They randomized 45 patients to 3 groups receiving intrathecal
hyperbaric bupivacaine 6 mg combined with saline (Group B), clonidine 15 micro
g (Group BC15), or clonidine 30 micro g (Group BC30); all solutions were
diluted with saline to 3 mL. The sensory block level was insufficient for
surgery in five patients in Group B, and these patients were given general
anesthesia. Patients in Groups BC15 and BC30 had a significantly higher spread
of analgesia (two to four dermatomes) than those in Group B. Two-segment
regression, return of S1 sensation, and regression of motor block were
significantly longer in Group BC30 than in Group B. The addition of clonidine 15 and 30 micro g to
bupivacaine prolonged time to first analgesic request and decreased
postoperative pain with minimal risk of hypotension. It was concluded that clonidine 15 micro g with bupivacaine 6
mg produced an effective spinal anesthesia and this dose was recommended for inguinal herniorrhaphy, because it did
not prolong the motor block. The addition of clonidine 15 micro g to 6 mg of
hyperbaric bupivacaine increases the spread of analgesia, prolongs the time to
first analgesic request, and decreases postoperative pain, compared with
bupivacaine alone, during inguinal herniorrhaphy under spinal anesthesia.
To appraise the clinical impact of combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia (CSE)
in patients undergoing total extraperitoneal laparoscopic hernia repair (TEPP),
Hirschberg et al. (98) performed a prospective study in 40 patients. These
patients were randomized to receive either CSE (n = 20) or a balanced general
anesthesia (BGA) with controlled ventilation (n = 20). The aim of the study was
to determine the impact of the intraoperative gas insufflation on compensatory
respiratory reactions during regional anesthesia. Therefore, blood gas samples
were drawn and additional parameters were assessed as follows: noninvasive
hemodynamic, lactate and glucose levels, differential blood count, and the
patients' level of comfort during the perioperative setting, which was
determined by a questionnaire. In this study it was clarified that the
respiratory compensation of extraperitoneal gas insufflation is not decreased
by regional anesthesia. The hemodynamic state of the patients was stabilized by
early interventions. In addition--there was no evidence that the anesthesia
regime used had any influence on the so called stress-parameters. Most of the
patients with regional anesthesia showed severe agitation often accompanied by
chest pain. Hence, regional anesthesia is not recommended in this setting.
The laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is selected as an alternative to the
endotracheal tube (ETT) when rapid recovery from general anesthesia is
considered. However, the clinical significance of this airway for abdominal
surgery is unclear. Thus, Azma et al. (99) evaluated whether the LMA, in
combination with regional anesthesia, facilitates the induction of and
emergence from general anesthesia in patients undergoing elective colorectal
surgery. Anesthesia-controlled time in an ETT/Epidural Anesthesia (EA) group [n
= 11; general anesthesia, combined with epidural anesthesia, was maintained by
sevoflurane (< 3%) supplemented with a fixed rate of propofol (3 mg/kg/h)
under controlled ventilation using the ETT] was compared with that in a
LMA/Combined Spinal-Epidural Anesthesia (CSEA) group [n = 10; in combination
with spinal-epidural anesthesia, general anesthesia was maintained as the same
protocol as the ETT/EA under spontaneous ventilation using the LMA]. Time for
airway placement in the LMA/CSEA group was significantly shorter than that in
the ETT/EA group. Intervals from the end of surgery until the removal of the
airway or the decision to exit the operating room in the LMA/CSEA group were
shorter than those in the ETT/EA group. No practical sign of aspiration
pneumonia and/or atelectasis was found in patients in either group. Under the
circumstance of regional anesthesia being requested for post-surgical pain
management, it was concluded that the LMA facilitated the emergence from as
well as the induction of anesthesia without any practical complication when
used for patients in colorectal surgery.
Michaloudis et al. (100) determined prospectively the
safety of continuous spinal anesthesia combined with general anesthesia and the
efficacy of postoperative pain relief with continuous spinal analgesia for
morbidly obese patients undergoing vertical banded gastroplasty. 27 patients
(13 men, 14 women) with a mean body mass index (BMI) of 50.4 +/- 7.8 and
several co-morbidities were studied. All patients were anesthetized with the same
anesthetic regimen, which included midazolam, fentanyl, propofol, muscle
relaxants, nitrous oxide, isoflurane and intrathecal bupivacaine. Postoperative
pain relief was provided for 5 days and all patients received the same regimen,
which included intrathecal bupivacaine, fentanyl and intravenous tenoxicam. The
intrathecal analgesic regimen was administered continuously through a pump
which had the facility of providing bolus doses when requested in predetermined
lockout intervals. Intra-operative monitoring included hemodynamic and
respiratory parameters. Additional postoperative monitoring included
respiratory rate, degree of sedation, sensory level of anesthesia, motor
response and intensity of pain. Intraoperative anesthetic technique was safe
and provided satisfactory results in the immediate postoperative period.
Furthermore, the postoperative analgesia regimen provided effective analgesia
in all patients. The mean doses of fentanyl and bupivacaine infused
intrathecally for the first 24 postoperative hours were 14.1 +/- 2.0
microg.h(1) and 0.7 +/- 0.1 mg.h(1) respectively, while the requirements of
analgesia decreased progressively with time. The technique provided effective
analgesia with low pain scores, which was reflected by ease in mobilizing and performing
physical exercises with the physiotherapist. Only minor complications related
to anesthesia and analgesia were encountered.
Asthma and heavy smoking are the risk factors for postoperative respiratory
distress, especially after general anesthesia. Yokoyama et al. (101)
experienced a case of sigmoidectomy in a geriatric patient with severe
obstructive lung disease accompanied by asthma and a long history of smoking.
The patient was a 70 year old man with 1 second volume of less than 0.6 l,
because of asthma and long smoking history of 40 pieces of cigarettes a day for
50 years. Yokoyama et al. considered that general anesthesia with tracheal
intubation might worsen the respiratory state after surgery and chose combined
spinal and epidural anesthesia. He received sigmoidectomy under spinal
anesthesia with 0.3% dibucaine 2.4 ml combined with epidural anesthesia. As the
level of analgesia went up to Th4, the patient complained of dyspnea and he
discharged a plenty of sputum. Without any special treatment his dyspnea
disappeared spontaneously. During and after the surgery, no exacerbation
occurred in his respiratory state. It is suggested that spinal anesthesia
combined with epidural anesthesia is useful for a patient with severe
obstructive lung disease.
Attempts to reduce central sensitization after tissue injury have led to the
concept of preemptive analgesia. A study was done to evaluate the effect of
spinal versus general anesthesia on postoperative pain and analgesic
requirements in patients undergoing lower abdominal surgery (102). Sixty women
scheduled for lower abdominal surgery were randomly assigned to two groups of
30 patients each to receive spinal anesthesia (SA) or general anesthesia (GA).
In the SA group, 3 mL of hyperbaric 0.5% bupivacaine was injected into the
subarachnoid space through the third or fourth lumbar interspace. In the GA
group, anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane and nitrous oxide.
Postoperative pain was assessed for 48 hours by a visual analog scale of pain
at rest and during cough and by patient-controlled cumulative morphine doses.
The pain score at rest was significantly lower in the SA group than in the GA
group 6-24 hours after surgery. The cough-associated pain score was also lower
in the SA group than in the GA group at 6-30 hours after surgery. Furthermore,
the SA group consumed less patient-controlled morphine than did the GA group
within the first 24 postoperative hours. Postoperative pain after lower
abdominal surgery can be significantly decreased if the surgery is performed
with use of SA.
Fourteen patients undergoing colorectal surgery received an intraoperative
afferent neural block with combined intrathecal and extradural local
anesthetics plus a balanced postoperative low-dose regimen of extradural bupivacaine
10 mg h-1-morphine 0.2 mg h-1 and systemic piroxicam 20 mg/24 h (103).
Postoperative pain, assessed repeatedly during the initial 48 h, was prevented
during rest, mobilization from the supine to the sitting position and during
walking, in all but one patient; slight pain was observed intermittently during
coughing in four patients.
Intraoperative surgical stress may markedly increase
adrenergic nerve activity and plasma catecholamine concentrations, which causes
peripheral vasoconstriction and decreased tissue oxygen partial pressure
possibly leading to tissue hypoxia. Tissue hypoxia is associated with an
increased incidence of surgical wound infections. Thoracic epidural anesthesia
blocks afferent neural stimuli and inhibits efferent sympathetic outflow in
response to painful stimuli. Consequently, Kabon et al. (104) tested the
hypothesis that supplemental thoracic epidural anesthesia during major
abdominal surgery improves tissue perfusion and subcutaneous oxygen tension.
Thirty patients were randomly assigned to two groups: general (n = 15) or
combined general and epidural anesthesia (n = 15). Anesthesia technique and
fluid management were standardized. Subcutaneous tissue oxygen tension was
measured continuously in the upper arm with a
CSEGA for Lumbar Disc Operations
General and regional anesthesia (spinal and epidural) can be performed successfully
for lumbar disc surgery. Demirel et al. (105) assessed the superiority of
general anesthesia or epidural anesthesia techniques in lumbar laminectomy and
discectomy. Sixty patients undergoing lumbar partial hemilaminectomy and
discectomy were randomly divided into two groups receiving standardized general
anesthesia (GA) or epidural anesthesia (EA). Demographically, both groups were
similar. Surgical onset time (36.72 +/- 5.47 vs. 25.40 +/- 7.83 minutes) was
longer in the EA group, but total anesthesia time (154.32 +/- 35.73 vs. 162.40
+/- 26.79 minutes) did not differ between the two groups. Surgical time (118.80
+/- 35.42 vs. 139.60 +/- 26.80 minutes) was longer in the GA group. The heart
rate and mean arterial pressure values of the EA group measured 15, 20, and 25
minutes after local anesthetic administration to the epidural catheter were
found to be lower than in the GA group measured after induction of general
anesthesia. The frequency of bradycardia (EA vs. GA, 3 vs. 2), tachycardia (3
vs. 7), and hypotension (6 vs. 4) during anesthesia did not differ between the
groups, but the occurrence of hypertension (1 vs. 7) was higher in the GA
group. Blood loss was less in the EA group than in the GA group (180.40 +/-
70.38 vs. 288.60 +/- 112.51 mL). Postanesthesia care unit (PACU) heart rate and
mean arterial pressure were higher in the GA group. Peak pain scores in PACU
and postoperative 24 hours were higher in the GA group when compared with the
EA group. Nausea was more common in the GA group both in PACU and 24 hours
after surgery. There was no difference between the hospitalization duration of
the groups. It is suggested that EA is an important alternative to GA during
lumbar disc surgery.
General or regional anesthesia may be used for lumbar laminectomy. 122 patients
were randomly assigned to receive either a standard general anesthetic (GA) or
spinal anesthesia (SA) supplemented with intravenous (IV) propofol sedation
(106). Data from the intraoperative period through hospital discharge were
collected and compared. Demographically, both groups were similar. Total
anesthesia (131.0 +/- 4.3 vs 106.6 +/- 3.2 min) and surgical times (81.5 +/-
3.6 vs 67.1 +/- 2.8 min) were longer in the GA group. Intraoperative
hemodynamics were similar between groups except that the incidence of increased
blood pressure was more frequent with GA (26.2% vs 3.3%). Blood loss was less
during SA (133 +/- 18 mL vs 221 +/- 32 mL). Postanesthesia care unit (PACU)
heart rates and mean arterial pressures were higher in the GA group. Peak pain
scores in the PACU were higher after GA compared with SA (58 +/- 4 vs 22 +/- 3)
as were the number of patients who required analgesics. Severe nausea was more
common in the GA group both in the PACU and during the 24 h after surgery.
Analgesic requirements after discharge from the PACU, urinary retention, and
days in the hospital did not differ between groups. It is suggested that SA may
be superior to GA both intraoperatively and postoperatively for lumbar spine
procedures lasting less than 2 h.
CSEGA for Pediatric Operations
Total spinal anesthesia (TSA) is a rare complication of lumbar epidural
anesthesia through inadvertent spinal injection of local anesthetics following
an undiagnosed dural breach or spinal placement of the catheter. TSA has rarely
been reported in children. TSA occurred during epidural anesthesia in a
7-year-old child undergoing abdominal surgery (107). Recent previous lumbar
punctures and intrathecal chemotherapy for Burkitt's lymphoma at the same level
may have facilitated dural breach. Epidural anesthesia should not be attempted
at the same intervertebral level as prior recent lumbar punctures.
Two groups of 40 homogeneous patients (ASA physical status (1-2)) with
idiopathic scoliosis undergoing spinal fusion with CD instrumentation were
studied prospectively (108). Group A (intrathecal) received a mixture of
morphine and sufentanil administered intrathecally at the level of L3-L4 after
the induction of anaesthesia. Group B (control) had inhalation and intravenous
narcotic anesthesia. The use of intrathecal opioids resulted in a significant
reduction of blood pressure without the use of any hypotensive agents and
produced prolonged postoperative analgesia. There was no adverse effect on
somatosensory evoked potentials. The dose requirement for the anaesthetic
agents was significantly reduced and the blood loss was 27% of their blood
volume compared with 53% in the control group. No long or short term impairment
of cerebral or spinal function was observed. The use of intrathecal opioids
supplemented with other anaesthetic agents is an alternative method with
multiple benefits for any major surgery such as spinal fusion.
Subarachnoid anesthesia is becoming increasingly popular in neonates and
infants. However, single dose spinal anesthesia is of limited value for major
abdominal surgery in infants due to its short duration of action and inability
to provide analgesia in the post operative period. A new technique of combined
spinal and epidural anesthesia for major abdominal surgery in the infant was
described (109). Data were gathered prospectively from 19 infants presenting
for upper and lower abdominal surgery. Anesthesia was induced with a
subarachnoid injection of tetracaine. After the subarachnoid block was
established, an epidural catheter was placed for further intraoperative and
postoperative management. Data collected included age and weight of the
patients, type and duration of the surgical procedure. Doses of local
anaesthetics as well as the need for intraoperative and postoperative
supplements were recorded. Infants studied represented a wide range of weights
(1520-7840 g). Spinal anesthesia was successful in all 19 patients. A variety
of extensive surgical procedures including small bowel resections and various genitourinary
procedures were successfully performed. In 17 patients a functioning epidural
catheter was in place postoperatively. In these patients effective analgesia
was maintained with dilute solutions of epidural bupivacaine. Only three doses
of narcotic were required for pain control. No patient required postoperative
mechanical ventilation or tracheal intubation. Combined spinal and epidural
anesthesia is a potential option to general anesthesia for major abdominal
surgery in infants.
The physiologic immaturity of respiratory musculature and central respiratory
control centers leads to an increased risk of apnea and respiratory
complications following general anesthesia in the neonate. Regional anesthetic
techniques such as spinal and caudal epidural anesthesia may obviate the need
for general anesthesia and lessen the risks of perioperative morbidity.
Although these techniques have been previously described in infants, the
majority of reports focus on regional anesthesia during herniorrhaphy in the former,
preterm infant. There is relatively little or no information concerning
regional anesthesia during urologic surgery in infants, especially during the
actual neonatal period (0 to 28 days). Tobias et al. (110) reported on three
neonates (2.17 to 3.8 kg) who required anesthetic care during the neonatal
period for various urologic procedures including cystoscopy, incision of a
ureterocele, and vesicostomy placement. Either caudal or spinal anesthesia was
successfully used in the awake infant without the need for supplemental
anesthetic agents (intravenous or inhalational).
CSEGA for
Orthopedic Operations
Casati et al. (111) compared the efficacy, efficiency and surgeon's
satisfaction of total intravenous anesthesia with propofol and remifentanil with
those of spinal or peripheral nerve blocks for outpatient knee arthroscopy. One
hundred and twenty patients undergoing elective outpatient knee arthroscopy
were randomly allocated to receive total intravenous anesthesia with propofol
and remifentanil (40), combined sciatic-femoral nerve block (40), or spinal
anesthesia (40). Preparation times, surgeon's satisfaction, and discharge times
with the 3 anesthesia techniques were measured. Anesthesia-related costs were
also compared based on costs of drugs, disposable materials, and anesthesia and
nurse staff. Preparation time was 13 min (8-22 min) with general anesthesia, 15
min (5-30 min) with spinal anesthesia and 15 min (5-25 min) with
sciatic-femoral blocks (p=0.006). Surgeon's satisfaction was similar in the 3
groups, but 17 patients receiving peripheral nerve block (42%) and 12 receiving
spinal anesthesia (30%) by-passed the postanesthesia care unit after surgery as
compared with only 2 general anesthesia patients (5%) (p=0.01). Discharge from
the postanesthesia care unit required 5 min (5-20 min) after peripheral block
as compared with 15 min (5-25 min) with spinal and 15 min (5-80 min) with
general anesthesia (p=0.005); however, stay in the Day-Surgery Unit was shorter
after general anesthesia [170 (100-400) min] than peripheral [265 (110-485)
min] or spinal blocks [230 (95-800) min] (p=0.026). Urinary retention was
reported in 3 spinal patients only (8%) (p=0.03). Regional anesthesia
techniques reduce the rate of admission and the duration of stay in the
postanesthesia care unit as compared with general anesthesia. Peripheral rather
than spinal nerve blocks should be preferred to minimise the risk for urinary
retention.
Deep venous thrombosis is the most common complication in
patients having elective total knee replacement. Pneumatic compression devices
play an important role in the prophylaxis of deep venous thrombosis and
effectively decrease the risk of distal deep venous thrombosis. The combination
therapy with pharmacologic agents has the benefit of decreasing the rate of
proximal deep venous thrombosis and therefore is recommended. In the absence of
clinical data, recent in vivo flow studies suggest that calf or combined foot
and calf compression are superior to foot compression alone. Epidural anesthesia
in comparison with general anesthesia decreases the incidence of thromboembolic
disease after total knee arthroplasty. Although hypotensive anesthesia and
intraoperative heparin have been proven to substantially lower the incidence of
deep venous thrombosis after total hip arthroplasty, the current literature
does not support its application during the implantation of a total knee
replacement. Pneumatic compression devices are an important part of deep venous
thrombosis prophylaxis especially in the early postoperative period considering
that pharmacologic anticoagulation is contraindicated in the first 12 hours
after spinal anesthesia and in the presence of an epidural line (112).
de Visme et al. (113) designed a prospective randomized study to determine the hemodynamic effects and
quality of combined lumbar and sacral plexus block compared with plain
bupivacaine spinal anesthesia in the elderly for repair of proximal femoral
fractures. Twenty-nine elderly patients ranging in age from 68 to 97 years were
randomly assigned to 2 groups: a spinal anesthesia group with single-shot 3 mL
0.5% plain bupivacaine, and a combined block group with 30 mL lidocaine 1.33%
with epinephrine for the posterior lumbar plexus block and 10 mL same mixture
for the parasacral block and an iliac crest block with 5 mL lidocaine 1%. No
need for general anesthesia was encountered in either group. Anesthesia was
judged unsatisfactory in 1 of 15 patients in the combined block group. The
initial decrease of mean arterial pressure was 38% in the spinal group and 27%
in the block group and was not significantly different. A more prolonged
hemodynamic effect was found in the spinal group, indicated by the more
frequent use of ephedrine to stabilize blood pressure (P<.05). Patients over
85 years had a significantly larger decrease in blood pressure than younger
patients (P<.01). Plain bupivacaine spinal anesthesia and combined
lumbar/sacral plexus block provided adequate anesthesia for repair of hip
fracture in the elderly. Hypotension was induced by both the combined
peripheral nerve block and plain bupivacaine spinal anesthesia in aged
patients; hypotension was found to be longer lasting after spinal anesthesia
and of a larger magnitude in patients over 85 years of age.
Ninety total hip replacements (THRs) performed by one surgeon were reviewed to
compare the effects of different anesthetic techniques on the perioperative
bleeding (114). Half of the THRs were performed under either combined spinal
and epidural (CSE) anesthesia with lidocaine or general anesthesia with N2O/O2,
vecuronium, enflurane or isoflurane. Deliberate hypotensive technique was not
employed in any THR. All patients were female and had suffered from
osteoarthritis of the hip joints. The patients in the two anesthesia groups
were similar as to age, body weight, height, perioperative hemoglobin level,
duration of anesthesia and operation, and blood transfusion requirement. A
positive linear correlation existed between total operative blood loss and
operation time in each group (P < 0.01). The rate of operative blood loss
was significantly higher in the CSE anesthesia (6.2 +/- 3.0 ml.min-1) than in
the general anesthesia (5.1 +/- 2.0 ml.min-1), while the amount of blood loss
itself was without statistical difference. A significant increase in total
volume of perioperative blood loss was also observed in the group with CSE
anesthesia (1520 +/- 90 ml) compared with the general anesthesia group (1279
+/- 58 ml). These results show that spinal and/or epidural anesthesia can not
always lead to reductions in operative blood loss during THR.
The effect of hypobaric spinal anesthesia or narcotic-halothane-relaxant
general anesthesia on the incidence of postoperative deep vein thrombosis was
studied in 140 elective total hip replacements in a prospective randomised
manner (115). Deep vein thrombosis was diagnosed using impedance
plethysmography and the 125I fibrinogen uptake test, combined, in selected
cases, with ascending contrast venography. The overall incidence of deep vein thrombosis
was 20%. Nine patients (13%) developed deep vein thrombosis in the spinal group
and nineteen (27%) in the general anesthetic group (p less than 0.05). The
incidences of proximal thrombosis and of bilateral thrombi were also less with
spinal anesthesia than with general anesthesia. It was concluded that spinal
anesthesia reduces the risks of postoperative thromboembolism in hip
replacement surgery. The presence of varicose veins, being a non-smoker and
having a low body mass index were associated with an increased incidence of
deep vein thrombosis.
Fifty-five patients presenting with fractured neck of femur were randomly
allocated to either a standard general anesthetic or spinal block in the
lateral position combined with light sedation (116). The comparability of the
two groups was established. There was little difference in the intra-operative
course of postoperative morbidity in the two groups. There was a statistically
significant difference in post-operative mortality between two groups, the general
anesthetic group showing a much higher mortality than the spinal group.
Efficient peri-operative analgesia is more comfortable,
allows earlier mobilisation and better functional results for lower limb
arthroplasties. Cazeneuve et al. (117) reported on their 60 cases prospective
study of combined spinal and epidural anesthesia, and exposed interests of this
technique to control peri-operative pain. From 1994 to 1995, 60 patients ASA
class 1 were operated: 45 total hip replacement (THR), 15 total knee
replacement (TKR). The average age was sixty five years (range thirty nine to
eighty five years). Combined spinal and epidural anesthesia was performed in
every case. In lateral decubitus position, a translucent 25 Gauge needle was
introduced in L2-L3 interspace. In the first time a spinal anesthesia was made
with 20 mg Bupivacaine. In the second time, a lumbar epidural catheter was
inserted. All patients received an epidural post-operative analgesia with 4 mg
Morphine once a day during two days and intravenous Paracetamol. Visual
analogue scale (0 to 10) (VAS) were recorded after the third post operative
hour and every twelve hours. During this period satisfaction mark was also
recorded (1 to 3). They didn't observe any case of respiratory depression or infection
with the epidural catheter. They observed 10 cases of pruritus (one needed to
stop protocol) and 18 urinary retentions. Six uretral catheters were necessary;
they had one case of pyelonephritis (escherichia coli). The first micturition
was obtained 13.5 hours after the end of surgery. For the fifty nine remaining
patients, visual analogue scale was always inferior or equal to 2/10 and the
satisfaction mark to 1/3. Different techniques allow peri-operative analgesia,
but a few are efficient during the first two days. Plexus nerve blocks are
simple and reliable but post-operative anesthesia is short (inferior to 15
hours). Intravenous morphine controlled by patients themselves with programmed
display needs expensive and sophisticated material. The principal risk is
respiratory depression. Epidural morphine has a lower respiratory depression
risk, but needs a heavier technique. The principal problem is higher incidence of urinary side effects.
Epidural anesthesia might tend to show a greater efficacity with the best
visual analogue scale and satisfaction mark. The results indicate that combined
spinal and epidural anesthesia for the management of peri-operative pain
provide an excellent pain control with a daily morphine injection. For lower
limb arthroplasties, visual analogue scale is always inferior or equal to 2 and
satisfaction mark equal to 1.
CSEGA for Vascular Operations
Major surgery evokes a stress response that can produce deleterious consequences,
especially in a population at high risk for those complications. Fleron et al.
(118) tested the hypothesis that decreasing or eliminating one of the sources
of stress by providing intense analgesia in the immediate postoperative period
via application of neuraxial opioids would decrease major nonsurgical
complications. Two-hundred-seventeen patients scheduled to undergo abdominal
aortic surgery were randomly allocated to receive either general anesthesia
alone (control) or general anesthesia combined with intrathecal opioid (1 micro
g/kg sufentanil with 8 micro g/kg preservative-free morphine injected at the
L4-5 interspace). Postoperative care was identical in the two groups, including
patient-controlled analgesia. Each patient provided an assessment of
postoperative pain using a visual analog scale. Postopera-tive complications
were recorded according to criteria established a priori. The administration of
intrathecal opioid provided more intense analgesia than patient-controlled
analgesia during the first 24 h postoperatively (P < 0.05). There was no
difference between groups for the incidence of combined major cardiovascular,
respiratory, and renal complications (P > 0.05) or mortality (P > 0.05).
The incidence of myocardial damage or infarction, as defined by abnormal plasma
concentration of troponin I, did not differ between the two groups (P >
0.05). In patients undergoing major abdominal vascular surgery, decrease of one
contributor to postoperative stress, by provision of intense analgesia for the
intraoperative and initial postoperative period, via application of neuraxial
opioid, does not alter the combined major cardiovascular, respiratory, and
renal complication rate.
The presence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) should not be
considered a contraindication to operation but should rather identify those
patients that require special preoperative and postoperative pulmonary care.
Flores et al. (119) reported their experience in the use of combined spinal and
epidural anesthesia (CSEA) for open AAA repair in such patients. From April
1997 to November 1998, three patients with severe COPD underwent elective open
infrarenal AAA repair under CSEA. All the patients satisfied one or more of the
following criteria: a room air PaO2 =or<60 mmHg, PaCO2 =or>45 mmHg, FEV1
=or<50% of predicted, and/or FVC =or<75% of predicted, and one of them
was on home oxygen preoperatively. Preoperative preparation of the patients
consisted of breathing exercises with incentive espirometry, elimination of
underlaying pulmonary infections and usage of bronchodilator therapy. All the
patients tolerated surgery safely. None of them developed postoperative
complications, including pneumonia and other respiratory conditions. No
significant changes in room air arterial blood gas or pulmonary function was
recognized before and after surgery. CSE anesthesia is a viable anesthetic
option for conventional AAA surgery in patients with severe COPD since it can
preserve spontaneous breathing and provide additional respiratory benefits over
general anesthesia.
An audit of 100 patients undergoing elective abdominal aortic surgery either by
open aortic repair (OAR group 50 patients) or endovascular aortic repair (EAR
group 50 patients) was undertaken to document changes in anesthetic technique
and perioperative outcome (120). The data for the OAR group was collected
retrospectively and that for the EAR group prospectively. Combined general
anesthesia and thoracic epidural anesthesia was used in 44 of the OAR group whereas
lumbar central neural blockade alone was used in 47 of the EAR group. The major
differences between the two groups were that intraoperative blood loss was
significantly less in the EAR group (OAR 1,674 +/- 1,008 ml, EAR 459 +/- 350
ml, P<0.001) and that no patient in the EAR group required admission to the
Intensive Care Unit (ICU), whereas ICU time for the OAR patients was 29 +/- 22
hours. Hospital stay was also significantly different between the two groups
(OAR 13 +/- 6 days, EAR 5 +/- 3 days, P<0.001). Major complications occurred
in 20 patients in the OAR group but only 4 patients in the EAR group
(P<0.001). EAR reduces blood loss, the requirement for ICU admission and
hospital stay.
Neuraxial blockade (spinal or epidural anesthesia) is still widely used in
patients undergoing vascular surgery. However, the combined administration of
anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents may compromise the safety of this
technique with regards to the potential occurrence of a spinal or of an
epidural hematoma. Samama and Baillard (121) reviewed the benefits and risks of
neuraxial blockade in light of the evolution of anticoagulation for vascular
surgery. Vascular surgery generally requires a high level of intraoperative
anticoagulation. An increasing number of patients are also treated pre and
post-operatively with antiplatelet agents. Their administration cannot be
interrupted without serious risks to the patients' cardiovascular system and,
further their continued use during surgery may improve graft permeability. Recent
reports have emphasized the danger of neuraxial anesthesia in patients
receiving low dose anticoagulation. So, high doses of heparins should carry an
ever higher risk of serious complications in patients undergoing neuraxial
blockade. Furthermore, no published data has ever demonstrated convincingly the
benefit of either epidural or spinal anesthesia over general anesthesia. No
differences have ever been documented in terms of cardio-vascular morbidity,
graft patency, and mortality. Routine neuraxial blockade cannot be recommended
in patients undergoing vascular surgery. The decision to perform a neuraxial
block in such a patient may only be taken on a case by case basis, after
careful consideration of expected benefits and potential risks.
Endovascular aortic stent grafts were first introduced in clinical trials in
1991. Endovascular aortic stent grafts are now being used to repair thoracic
and abdominal aneurysms in patients not eligible for open repair because of
severe medical coexisting diseases. Previously described anesthetic techniques
in the literature for aortic stent graft placement include general anesthesia,
epidural anesthesia, combined single-shot spinal and epidural anesthesia, and
direct local anesthesia. Mathes and Kern (122)
reported the use of a continuous
spinal anesthetic technique as a viable anesthetic option for patients with
severe coexisting medical diseases undergoing abdominal aortic stent graft
placement.
Serious neurological complications of abdominal aortic vascular surgery are
rare but devastating for all involved. When epidural blockade is part of the
anesthetic technique such complications may be attributed to needles, catheters
or drugs. Rutter et al. (123) presented
a patient who developed paraplegia following an elective abdominal
aortic aneurysm repair. Continuous epidural blockade was part of the anesthetic
technique and postoperative analgesia. In this case the spinal cord damage was
explained by ischemia caused by the aortic surgery.
The efficacy of combined spinal epidural anesthesia (CSEA) for femoral to
distal artery bypass surgery was assessed (124). Thirty-eight patients were
divided into 3 groups. CSE block was performed at L3-L4 (26G pencil-point
spinal needle and 18G catheter). In group I (n = 14) blocking was induced with
20 mg of 1% lidocaine and maintained with 2% lidocaine through an epidural
catheter. Group II (n = 15) received spinal plain 20 mg of 0.5% bupivacaine. In
group III (n = 9) the initial dose of plain 0.5% bupivacaine was 3 ml (15 mg);
5 min after the first bolus the incremental dose of plain bupivacaine 3 ml (15
mg) was injected and spinal needle was withdrawn. Epidural 0.5% bupivacaine was
injected as needed. Sensory blockade was assessed by the pinprick test. Two
patients in group I (18.2%) were in need of general anesthesia (GA) (inadequate
dissemination of solution in 1 case and catheter kinking in the other). In
group
The hemodynamic changes associated with intrathecal morphine (IM) compared to
intrathecal sufentanil (IS) as a supplement to general anesthesia for elective
bypass grafting in patients with aortoiliac occlusive disease were studied
(125). Thirty-six, ASA Grade 2, patients randomly received morphine
hydrochloride (0.1%) 50 micrograms kg-1 (n = 18) or undiluted sufentanil, 150
micrograms (n = 18) intrathecally at T12-L1, combined with light general
anesthesia. Hemodynamics were measured before and
after endotracheal intubation, abdominal incision, aortic cross-clamping and
the first revascularisation. The major differences were recorded after
abdominal incision. Heart rate, systemic blood pressure and coronary perfusion
pressure were significantly lower in the IS group. The probable cause was
greater systemic absorption of sufentanil and its faster binding to the specific
opiate receptors, resulting in a more efficacious supraspinal and spinal
blockade during the first surgical period. However, both opioids provided
adequate analgesia during the whole surgical procedure.
Inberg et al. (126) evaluated the usefulness, safety, and
efficacy of the combined plexus brachial, spinal, and epidural blocks in free
toe to hand transplantations. The duration of operations varied between 8 and
18 hours. No major complications occurred. Vasodilatation in the operated hand
was maintained during the entire operation as well as in the postoperative
period, and the surgical results were satisfactory. The mean skin temperature
was 5 degrees C higher in the blocked extremity compared to the opposite hand.
In every patient the skin temperature of the transplant was over 32.4 degrees C
after the operation. Blood pressure, heart rate, temperature and oxygen
saturation were well maintained during the entire procedure. All patients were
satisfied with their anesthesia. Back pain occurred in 11 patients and in two
it was considered severe. One patient may have had a systemic toxic reaction
(shivering) due to high plasma levels of bupivacaine, but the symptom was
transient. Combined regional anesthesia is an alternative to general anesthesia
in prolonged microsurgical operations and it appears to improve perfusion of
the transplanted extremity.
Extra-anatomic axillofemoral bypass is a surgical procedure
that is indicated in cases of occlusive aortoiliac pathology in which the
transabdominal way is not feasible or in patients of high risk. Sopena et al.
(127) presented a preliminary study in
which they have prospectively evaluated 14 patients who were received an
axillofemoral bypass during 1990. After preoperative evaluation two groups were
identified: Group ALR (5 patients) with combined anesthetic blockade of
supraclavicular brachial plexus and continuous subarachnoid blockade. Group AG
(9 patients) who received balanced general anesthesia. In all cases they
obtained a good anesthetic level for surgery. The incidence of complications
was similar in both groups. One patient subjected to general anesthesia died.
Combined blockade induces a satisfactory analgesia in all surgical
interventions without exceeding in any case the maximal doses of anesthetic
drugs. Additionally, this technique affords the advantages of regional
anesthesia and can be used as an alternative anesthetic procedure in patients
of high risk who undergo axillofemoral bypass.
Houweling et al. (128)
evaluated the influence of epidural
sufentanil (ES) and intrathecal sufentanil (IS) on the peri-operative
hemodynamic responses during abdominal aortic surgery. Twenty-four ASA Grade II
patients without clinical symptoms of coronary artery disease received,
randomly, epidural (n = 12) or intrathecal (n = 12) sufentanil combined with
light general anesthesia for elective bifemoral grafting for aorto-iliac
occlusive disease. The IS group contained significantly more hypertensive
patients than the ES group. This resulted in a significantly higher systolic
and mean blood pressure, which remained constant from the start to the end of
the study. Following a single bolus injection of 150 micrograms of sufentanil
epidurally or intrathecally, there was a significant decrease in heart rate
(HR), systolic, mean and diastolic blood pressure, systemic vascular resistance
(SVR) and coronary perfusion pressure in both groups. This suggests that IS and
ES must be used with caution in patients with cardiovascular disease. The
abdominal incision restored the hemodynamic changes produced by sufentanil
administration, but these did not exceed pre-sufentanil values. There were no
significant changes in filling pressure, cardiac index (CI) and left
ventricular work after aortic cross-clamping in the two groups. Revascularization
produced significant differences in HR, SVR and CI in both groups in comparison
with the pre-declamping period. Notable was the maintenance of systemic blood
pressure following revascularization due to preservation of sympathetic
activity. It was concluded that both epidural and intrathecal sufentanil
produce comparable and stable hemodynamics in this category of patients.
Christopherson et al. (129) examined the degree of success at maintaining
patients randomized to epidural or general anesthesia for peripheral vascular
surgery within predetermined blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) limits and
investigated associations between such hemodynamic control and intraoperative
myocardial ischemia and postoperative major cardiac morbidity in 100 patients
undergoing elective lower extremity revascularization for atherosclerotic
peripheral vascular disease. Patients were randomized to receive either
epidural anesthesia or general anesthesia. Blood pressure and HR limits were
determined prior to randomization. Hemodynamic monitoring and management of
anesthesia was standardized. Myocardial ischemia and major cardiac morbidity
were diagnosed by a blinded cardiologist, based on continuous ambulatory ECG
monitoring, cardiac enzymes, and 12 lead ECGs. Intraoperative BP and HR date
were analyzed by investigators masked to the type of anesthesia given. A
greater percentage of patients randomized to general anesthesia had
intraoperative BPs more above their limit (95% vs 72%, p = 0.002) and/or more
rapid changes in HR (75% vs 48%, p = 0.008) or BP (100% vs 93%, p = 0.04) than
those randomized to epidural anesthesia. Intraoperative ischemia and major
cardiac morbidity were similar in the two anesthesia groups. Patients
experiencing intraoperative ischemia, regardless of anesthetic type, more
frequently had BPs greater than 10% above their upper limit (90% vs 60% p =
0.04) and/or more rapid HR changes (90% vs 58%, p = 0.03) compared with
patients without ischemia. These vital sign abnormalities, however, were not
necessarily temporally related to the ischemic episodes. Patients experiencing
subsequent major cardiac morbidity were not different from other patients with
respect to excursions out of BP on HR limits. Prevention of elevated
intraoperative BP and/on rapid changes in BP or HR may be more successful with
epidural than with general anesthesia. Such vital sign abnormalities may occur
more frequently in patients who have had intraoperative ischemia or are at risk
for having it later in the procedure.
Damask et al. (130) examined whether
epidural anesthesia is more effective than general anesthesia using an
inhalation agent in controlling cardiovascular responses during
femoral-popliteal bypass surgery. Nineteen patients were randomized into two
groups: general anesthesia (n = 10) and epidural anesthesia (n = 9). The
patients who underwent general anesthesia received sodium pentothal and
succinylcholine for induction of anesthesia and 60% N2O, 40% O2, and 1% to 1.5%
isoflurane for maintenance. Fifteen minutes before extubation, the patients
received morphine sulfate 0.05 mg/kg intravenously (IV). The group that
underwent epidural anesthesia received anesthesia to T-10 (through a catheter
placed in the L4-5 interspace using 3% 2-chloroprocaine). Thirty minutes after
the last dose, morphine sulfate 0.05 mg/kg IV was administered. Hemodynamic
variables were recorded at selected intervals during the operation and for 60
minutes in the recovery room. In the general anesthesia group, mean arterial
pressure (MAP) and rate pressure product (RPP) significantly decreased (p less
than 0.05) during the operation as compared with preoperative values. Following
intubation and skin incision, 5 minutes after extubation, and after 60 minutes
in the recovery room, MAP, heart rate (HR), and RPP were significantly greater
(p less than 0.05) as compared with intraoperative periods. In the epidural
anesthesia group, there were clinically important decreases in MAP and RPP
after reaching T-10 and skin incision. The general anesthesia patients showed
higher MAP, HR, and RPP 5 minutes after extubation and after 60 minutes in the
recovery room. Epidural anesthesia patients showed stable hemodynamic patterns
throughout the study.
Garnett et al. (131) made a randomized
study to determine whether combined general and epidural anesthesia with
postoperative epidural analgesia, compared with general anesthesia and
postoperative intravenous analgesia, reduced the incidence of perioperative
myocardial ischemia in patients undergoing elective aortic surgery. Patients
were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group (EPI, n = 48) received
combined general and epidural anesthesia and postoperative epidural analgesia
for 48 hrs. The other group (GA, n = 51) received general anesthesia followed
by postoperative intravenous analgesia. Anesthetic goals were to maintain
hemodynamic stability (+/- 20% of preoperative values), and a stroke volume
> 1 ml.kg-1. A Holter monitor was attached to each patient the day before
surgery. Leads II, V2, and V5 were
monitored. Myocardial ischaemia was defined as ST segment depression > 1 mm
measured at 80 millisec beyond the J point or an elevation of 2 mm 60 millisec
beyond the J point which lasted > 60 sec. An event that lasted > 60 sec
but returned to the baseline for > 60 sec and then recurred, was counted as
two separate events. The Holter tapes were reviewed by a cardiologist blind to
the patient's group. There were no demographic differences between the two
groups. Myocardial ischemia was common; it occurred in 55% of patients. In
hospital, preoperative ischemia was uncommon (GA = 3, EPI = 8). Intraoperative
ischemia was common (GA = 18, EPI = 25). Mesenteric traction produced the
largest number of ischemic (GA = 11, EPI = 11) events. Postoperative ischemia
was most common on the day of surgery. Termination of epidural analgesia
produced a burst of ischemia (60 events in 9 patients). Combined general and
epidural anesthesia and postoperative epidural analgesia do not reduce the
incidence of myocardial ischemia or morbidity compared with general anesthesia
and postoperative intravenous analgesia.
Fifty patients undergoing elective abdominal aortic surgery were randomised to
receive either combined epidural and general anesthesia and postoperative
epidural analgesia (CEGA) or general anesthesia and postoperative intravenous
morphine infusion (GA) (132). Prospective data was collected in order to
compare the two groups. This included intraoperative cardiovascular changes and
postoperative complications. The use of intraoperative vasopressors was
significantly higher in the CEGA group (P < 0.01) but the use of intravenous
glyceryl trinitrate was significantly lower (P < 0.01). There was no
significant difference between groups in regard to blood loss, volume replacement
or in the number of patients requiring postoperative ventilation. Two patients
in the CEGA group died postoperatively compared to one in the GA group (not
significant). There was no significant difference between groups in the total
number or type of postoperative complications. Combining epidural anesthesia
with general anaesthesia altered intraoperative cardiovascular management but
did not affect postoperative outcome.
CSEGA for Cardiac Operations
Salvi et al. (133) assessed the
feasibility of high thoracic epidural anesthesia combined with sevoflurane for
off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery and evaluated the postoperative pain
control, side effects, and perioperative hemodynamics. One hundred six
consecutive patients received thoracic epidural combined with sevoflurane.
Insertion of the epidural catheter was successful in all but 2 patients; 1
bloody tap occurred and the dura was never punctured, although 1 patient
presented with postoperative paraplegia. An emergency spinal cord nuclear magnetic
resonance excluded signs of medullary compression caused by epidural or spinal
hematoma. Visual analog scale scores for pain during the first 24-hour period
were < 2 in all patients. Mean time to extubation was 4.6 +/- 2.9 hours. The
average intensive care unit stay was 1.5 +/- 0.8 days. Incidences of
perioperative myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, and atrial
fibrillation were 2.8%, 7.5%, and 10.6%, respectively. Two patients died: 1
from multiorgan failure and the other from myocardial infarction. Heart rate,
mean arterial pressure, cardiac index, and systemic vascular resistance were
not affected by thoracic epidural alone. Mean arterial pressure and cardiac
index decreased (p < 0.05) when general anesthesia was induced and remained
stable thereafter. Neither heart rate nor systemic vascular resistance changed
from baseline during operation. Thoracic epidural as an adjunct to general
anesthesia is a feasible technique in off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery.
It induces intense postoperative analgesia and does not compromise central
hemodynamics.
Pastor et al. (134) evaluated the risk
of neurologic complications caused by an epidural hematoma in a series of
patients who had coronary artery bypass graft surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass
under combined general and thoracic epidural anesthesia (TEA) in seven hundred
fourteen patients who had coronary artery bypass grafting surgery over a 7-year
period. An epidural catheter was inserted at T(1)-T(3) as soon as the patient
was in the operating room and local anesthetic was administered as a bolus and
then as a continuous infusion throughout the operation and postoperatively. A
set of safety guidelines was routinely followed. A protocol for postoperative
neurologic evaluation was used to rule out any signs of spinal compression.
Preoperatively, a battery of coagulation tests was systematically performed
including APTT, platelet count, and prothrombin time. Antiplatelet drugs
(aspirin) were stopped at least 7 days before surgery. No patient required
parenteral opiates postoperatively. Seventy-five percent of the patients were
extubated in the operating room. No clinical epidural hematomas were detected.
In this study, some of the benefits previously reported during cardiac surgery
under TEA, such as excellent analgesia and early extubation, were confirmed. In
addition, the series adds further evidence that adherence to a set of standard
safety measures, in this setting, averts the occurrence of symptomatic epidural
hematomas.
After cardiac surgery adequate postoperative analgesia is necessary. Lena et
al. (135) assessed analgesia using
intrathecal morphine and clonidine. In a double-blind randomized study, 45
patients having coronary artery bypass graft surgery were allocated randomly to
receive i.v. patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) morphine (bolus, 1 mg; lock-out
interval, 7 min) (control group), either alone or combined with intrathecal
morphine 4 microg kg(-1) or with both intrathecal morphine 4 microg kg(-1) and
clonidine 1 microg kg(-1). Intrathecal injections were performed before the
induction of general anaesthesia. Pain was measured after surgery using a
visual analogue scale (VAS). I.V. PCA
morphine consumption during the 24 h after operation was recorded. Morphine
dosage [median (25th-75th percentiles)] was less in the first 24 h in the
patients who were given intrathecal morphine + clonidine [7 (0-37) mg] than in
other patients [40.5 (15-61.5) mg in the intrathecal morphine group and 37
(30.5-51) mg in the i.v. morphine group]. VAS scores were lower after
intrathecal morphine + clonidine compared with the control group. Time to
extubation was less after intrathecal morphine + clonidine compared with the
i.v. morphine group [225 (195-330) vs 330 (300-360) min, P<0.05]. Intrathecal
morphine and clonidine provide effective analgesia after coronary artery bypass
graft surgery and allow earlier extubation.
Lee et al. (136) in a double-blind,
randomized, controlled trial examined the effect of high-dose intrathecal
bupivacaine in combination with general anesthesia on atrial beta-adrenergic
receptor function, the stress response, and hemodynamics during coronary artery
bypass graft surgery. Thirty-eight patients were randomized to either control
(n = 19) or intrathecal bupivacaine (ITB) groups (n = 19). Patients in the ITB
group received 37.5 mg intrathecal hyperbaric bupivacaine before induction of
general anesthesia. Control patients received an injection of local anesthetic
into the skin and subcutaneous tissues (sham spinal). Comparisons were made
between groups with respect to atrial receptor desensitization and
down-regulation, in addition to circulating catecholamines and hemodynamics. In
patients with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) times in excess of 1 h, the ITB
group had significantly less atrial beta-receptor dysfunction, as measured by
maximal isproteronol, 50% maximal isoproterenol, sodium fluoride-stimulated
activity, and zinterol stimulation assays of adenylyl cyclase activity (P <
or = 0.02) and beta-adrenergic receptor density (P = 0.02). Serum epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and cortisol concentrations were significantly lower in the ITB
group, independent of CPB times (P < 0.0001, P < 0.001, and P < 0.05,
respectively). ITB patients had a higher cardiac index and a lower pulmonary
vascular resistance index in the post-CPB time period (P < 0.01 and P <
0.05, respectively). In the pre-CPB period, mean arterial pressure and systemic
vascular resistance index were significantly lower in the ITB group. High-dose
intrathecal bupivacaine, when combined with general anesthesia, resulted in
less beta-receptor dysfunction and a lower stress response during coronary
artery bypass graft surgery.
Canto et al. (137) evaluated the risk of neurologic
complications resulting from epidural hematoma in 305 patients who had surgery
for repair or replacement of heart valves under combined general and thoracic
epidural anesthesia (TEA). An epidural catheter was inserted at T1-3 as soon as
the patient was in the operating room, and local anesthetic was administered as
a bolus, then as a continuous infusion throughout the operation and
postoperatively. A protocol for postoperative neurologic evaluation was used to
rule out clinical signs of spinal lesions. A set of safety guidelines was
routinely followed. Preoperatively a battery of coagulation tests was
systematically carried out: activated partial thromboplastin time, platelet
count, and prothrombin time. Oral anticoagulants (warfarin) were stopped >60
hours before surgery, and antiplatelet drugs (aspirin) were stopped 7 days
before. No patient required parenteral opiates postoperatively. Of the
patients, 65% were extubated in the operating room. There were no neurologic
complications resulting from epidural hematoma. TEA can provide effective
postoperative analgesia and assist in early tracheal extubation in cardiac
valve surgery. In this series, there were no neurologic deficits detected. When
certain safety measures are taken, routine TEA is feasible and helpful in
cardiac valve surgery.
Whether regional anesthesia is preferable to general anesthesia for patients
with congestive heart failure (CHF) undergoing noncardiac surgery remains
controversial. Cohen et al. (138) made a study to determine whether anesthetic
technique affects postoperative cardiac outcome in patients with CHF; they
hypothesized that cardiac outcomes would be superior with regional anesthesia
compared with general anesthesia. 106 patients with prior or persistent CHF,
undergoing femoral to distal artery bypass surgery, were randomized to general
anesthesia (29 patients) or regional anesthesia (epidural, 42 patients, or
spinal anesthesia, 35 patients). The primary end point was death or adverse
cardiac events (myocardial infarction, unstable angina, or CHF). There was no
statistically significant difference between groups in incidence of combined
cardiac events, death, myocardial infarction, death or myocardial infarction combined, unstable angina, or CHF.
In a double-blind randomized study Mason et al. (139) compared a group of 15 patients undergoing
thoracotomy who received a spinal injection of sufentanil 20 microg combined
with morphine (200 microg) after induction of general anesthesia with a control
group of the same size. Post-operative pain was rated on a visual analogue scale
(VAS) and a verbal rating scale at rest and with a VAS on coughing. In the
recovery room, patients received titrated i.v. morphine until the VAS score was
<30, and were followed by patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) for 72 h. The
intrathecal sufentanil and morphine group had a lower intra-operative
requirement for i.v. sufentanil and needed less i.v. morphine for titration in
the recovery room. I.v. PCA morphine consumption and pain scores were lower in
the active group than in the control group during the first 24 h. There were no
differences after this time. Spirometric data (peak expiratory flow, forced
vital capacity and forced expiratory volume in 1 s) were similar in the two
groups. It was concluded that the combination of intrathecal sufentanil and
morphine produces analgesia of rapid onset and with a duration of 24 h.
Liu et al. (140) compared the analgesic
effect of lumbar intrathecal (IT) 0.5 mg morphine (Group M, n = 10), 50 microg
sufentanil (Group S, n = 10), and their combination (Group S-M, n = 10) given
before general anesthesia and patient-controlled analgesia with IV morphine
(Group C, n = 19) in a randomized, double-blinded study performed in patients
undergoing thoracotomy. Pain visual analog scale (VAS) and morphine consumption
were assessed for 24 h. In Group S-M the number of patients initially titrated
with IV morphine was less than in group C (30 vs 84%, P < 0.05). Morphine
requirement was higher in Group C (71 +/- 30 mg) than in Groups S (46 +/- 34
mg, P < 0.05), M (38 +/- 31 mg, P < 0.05) and S-M (23 +/- 16 mg, P <
0.01). VAS scores were significantly decreased during the first 0-11
postoperative h at rest and during the first 0-8 postoperative h on coughing in
Groups M and S-M rather than in Group C. The incidence of side effects was
infrequent except for urinary retention. Preoperative IT morphine or combined
sufentanil and morphine could be given as a booster to achieve rapidly
effective analgesia in the immediate postoperative period. As compared with IV
patient-controlled analgesia, intrathecal morphine or combined sufentanil and
morphine provided superior postoperative pain relief both at rest (11 h) and on
coughing (8 h) than did IV patient-controlled analgesia morphine alone. IV
morphine requirement was decreased during the first postoperative day after
posterolateral thoracotomy.
Kowalewski et al. (141) reported their experience with general anesthesia (GA)
supplemented with subarachnoid bupivacaine and morphine for coronary artery
bypass surgery (CABG) in 18 patients. Fifteen patients were male, and mean age
was 62 yr. Anesthesia (GA) was induced with alfentanil 97 +/- 22
micrograms.kg-1 and midazolam 0.04 +/- 0.02 mg.kg-1 supplemented with a muscle
relaxant, and maintained with isoflurane (0.25-0.5%) in oxygen throughout surgery.
Spinal anesthesia (SA) was then performed at a lumber level using hyperbaric
bupivacaine (23-30 mg) and/or lidocaine (150 mg) with morphine (0.5-1 mg).
Pooled data showed the following hemodynamic results (P < 0.05). Induction
of GA produced a decrease in mean arterial pressure (MAP). Addition of SA
produced a decrease in heart rate. Heart rate and MAP did not change with
sternotomy. Phenylephrine support of arterial blood pressure was used at some
time during operation in 17 patients. Supplementation of GA was minimal.
Patients received 2.7 +/- 0.7 coronary grafts. Operating room time was 3.9 +/-
0.6 hr. Postoperative analgesic requirements were minimal, and in half of the
patients tracheal extubation occurred on the day of surgery. Complications included
one myocardial infarction, one resternotomy, a metabolic encephalopathy in a
dialysis-dependent patient, and one case of herpes labialis. No patient
recalled intraoperative events. Combined GA with SA may be an effective
technique for CABG surgery.
The records of 10 patients who had well-preserved respiratory and ventricular
function and had received 50 micrograms of sufentanil and 0.5 mg of morphine
intrathecally before induction of anesthesia for cardiopulmonary bypass surgery
were reviewed (142). Anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane and no patient
received intravenous narcotics intraoperatively. Postoperative analgesic
requirements were low, with 7 of 10 patients requiring no supplemental
analgesic during the first 12 hours. Early extubation (within 8 hours of
arrival in the intensive care unit) was possible in 8 patients; two patients
remained intubated for reasons unrelated to the anesthetic technique. No
patient required naloxone, reintubation, or treatment for respiratory
depression. Combined intrathecal sufentanil and morphine provided conditions
that allowed successful early extubation in 8 of 10 of these selected cardiac
surgery patients.
CSEGA for
Laparoscopic Operations
Although endoscopic totally extraperitoneal inguinal hernioplasty (TEP) confers
superior early outcomes compared to those of open repair, the requirement of
general anesthesia has been held as an argument against the application of TEP
by opponents of laparoscopic surgery. To date, the literature on TEP performed under
spinal anesthesia remains scarce. The present study reports an early experience
performing TEP under spinal anesthesia in selected patients who were medically
unfit for general anesthesia (143). Between March 2003 and March 2004, 6 male
patients underwent attempted TEP under spinal anesthesia. Selection criteria
for the procedure included reducibility of the inguinal hernia and concomitant
medical conditions precluding general aesthesia, such as impaired lung
function. All patients were conscious and able to communicate verbally during
the operation. TEP was successfully completed in 4 patients, with a mean
operative time of 33 minutes. All 4 patients were asymptomatic and experienced
no pain throughout the procedure. Conversion to open repair was required in 2
patients because of uncooperative movement in one, and inadequate neural
blockade by spinal anesthesia in the other. Intraoperative cardiorespiratory
parameters were stable in all patients. Postoperative urinary retention
occurred in 1 patient. The mean length of follow-up exceeded 3 months, and no
seroma or recurrence was detected clinically. Successful performance of TEP
under spinal anesthesia requires the combined efforts of an experienced
anesthesiologist, a skilled surgeon, and a cooperative patient. The initial
experience of TEP under spinal anesthesia appeared promising. TEP under spinal
anesthesia may have a role in selected patients who are medically unfit for
general anesthesia but are otherwise suitable for TEP.
Abdominal wall lift laparoscopic surgery is often used for patients during
pregnancy because it is physiologically superior to CO2 pneumoperitoneum
laparoscopic surgery. Operation for adnexal cysts is performed in the 1st
trimester. Yamada et al. (144) reported
on seven cases of ovarian cysts
during pregnancy, resected using gasless laparoscopic method with a whole
abdominal wall lift under combined spinal-epidural anesthesia (CSEA). Combined
spinal-epidural anesthesia had several advantages in these cases; 1. In the 1
st trimester, general anesthesia should be avoided. They could manage these
cases without general anesthesia nor sedative medications. 2. During pregnancy,
it is difficult to estimate the level of sensory blockade by spinal anesthesia.
Epidural top-up helped to easily control the level of sensory blockade. 3.
Differential diagnosis of pain related to uterine contraction and postoperative
pain is difficult. Post-operative analgesia was established by epidural PCA,
thus anti uterine contraction medicines were prophylactically administered in
only one of seven cases. There was no particular trouble during the anesthesia
and all the operative procedures were performed uneventfully. Based on this
limited experience, CSEA may be a safe and appropriate anesthetic technique for
laparoscopic ovarian cystectomy with abdominal wall lift during pregnancy.
Laparoscopic surgery has become popular in recent years,
but few studies have addressed analgesia for this type of surgery. Kong et al.
(145) conducted a prospective double-blind
randomised trial on 36 cases of laparoscopic colorectal surgery to determine
the influence of intrathecal morphine on postoperative pain relief. All
patients received a subarachnoid block with local anesthetic in addition to
general anesthesia. One group also received intrathecal morphine. A
patient-controlled analgesic (PCA) device was prescribed for pain control
postoperatively and the visual analogue score (VAS) was used for pain
assessment. The group who received intrathecal morphine used significantly less
morphine. There were no adverse cardiovascular effects of the combined
anesthetic technique. Nausea and vomiting remained the main side-effect of
intrathecal morphine but this was easily treated with anti-emetics.
A randomized controlled trial compared recovery characteristics after selective
spinal anaesthesia (SSA) or propofol general anaesthesia (GA) for
short-duration outpatient laparoscopic surgery (146). Forty women were
randomized to receive either SSA (1% lidocaine 10 mg, sufentanil 10 microg and
sterile water 1.8 ml) or GA (propofol and nitrous oxide 50% in oxygen).
Compared with the GA group, times to leaving the operating room, performing a
straight leg raise, performing deep knee-bends and achieving an Aldrete score
>9 and the time in Phase II recovery were significantly shorter (P <
0.05) in the SSA group.
Laparoscopic repair of inguinal hernia is traditionally performed under general
anesthesia mainly because of the adverse effects that carbon dioxide
pneumoperitoneum has on awake patients. Since a mandatory use of general
anesthesia for all hernia repairs is questionable, the feasibility of
laparoscopic extraperitoneal herniorraphy using spinal anesthesia combined with
nitrous oxide insufflation was investigated (147). Over a 4-month period,
February to May 1998, 35 consecutive total extraperitoneal inguinal hernia
procedures were performed (24 unilateral, 11 bilateral) using spinal anesthesia
and nitrous oxide extraperitoneal gas. Data on operative findings,
self-reported operative and postoperative pain and discomfort (visual analog
pain scale), procedure-related hemodynamics, and complications were collected
prospectively. All 35 procedures were completed laparoscopically without the
need to convert to general anesthesia. Mean operative time was 39 +/- 7 min for
unilateral hernia and 65 +/- 10 min for bilateral hernia. Incidental peritoneal
tears occurred in 22 patients (63%) resulting in nitrous oxide
pneumoperitoneum, which was well tolerated. The patients remained hemodynamically
stable throughout the procedure, and operative conditions and visibility were
excellent. Complications at a mean of 4 months after the procedure included
seven uninfected seromas (20%), three patients with transient testicular pain,
and one (3%) recurrence. Laparoscopic total extraperitoneal hernia repair can
be safely and comfortably performed using spinal anesthesia with
extraperitoneal nitrous oxide insufflation gas. This method provides a good
alternative to general anesthesia.
Chilvers et al. (148) performed a
double-blind, controlled trial to determine the optimal dose of intrathecal
fentanyl in small-dose hypobaric lidocaine spinal anesthesia for outpatient
laparoscopy. Sixty-four gynecological patients were randomized into three
groups, receiving 0, 10, or 25 micrograms fentanyl added to 20 mg lidocaine and
sterile water (total 3 mL). Administration was with 27-gauge Whitacre needles
and patients sat upright until the block was > T-8. One patient in the
0-microgram fentanyl group required general anesthesia 40 min after the start
of surgery, leaving 21 patients per group. Three patients in each of the
0-microgram and 10-microgram fentanyl groups had mild discomfort with trocar
insertion, or return of some sensation and felt discomfort with sutures toward
the end of surgery. Shoulder-tip pain was less frequent in the 25-microgram
than 0-microgram fentanyl group, 28% vs 67% (P < 0.0166). Intraoperative
supplementation with alfentanil (+/- propofol) was needed less often in the
25-microgram than 0-microgram fentanyl group, 43% vs 76% (P = 0.028). Recovery
of sensation took longer in the 25-microgram than in the 0-microgram and
10-microgram fentanyl groups, 101 +/- 21 vs 84 +/- 20 and 87 +/- 18 min (P <
0.05), although motor recovery and discharge times were the same. Postoperative
analgesia was needed earlier in the 0-microgram than in the 25-microgram
fentanyl group, median 54 (13-120) vs 87 (65-132) min (P < 0.05). Pruritus
was the only side effect that occurred more often in the 10-microgram and 25-microgram
groups than in the 0-microgram fentanyl group, 62% and 67% vs 14% (P <
0.0166). One patient required an epidural blood patch for postdural puncture
headache. Based on these results, it was concluded that 25 micrograms
intrathecal fentanyl is required when 20 mg lidocaine is used for hypobaric
spinal anesthesia (SA) to ensure reliable, durable anesthesia, reduce
shoulder-tip pain, and minimize the need for intraoperative supplementation.
This dose provides longer postoperative analgesia and does not increase side
effects apart from pruritus. SA with small-dose hypobaric lidocaine-fentanyl
was found to be a satisfactory technique for outpatient laparoscopy, although
postdural puncture headache can occur in some patients.
CSEGA: Statistics
A national survey in
A retrospective analysis was performed on 19,259 deliveries that occurred in
one institution from January 2000 to December 2002 (150). Anesthesia records
and quality assurance data sheets were reviewed for the characteristics and
failure rates of neuraxial blocks performed for labor analgesia and anesthesia.
The neuraxial labor analgesia rate was 75% and the overall failure rate was
12%. After adequate analgesia from initial placement, 6.8% of patients had
subsequent inadequate analgesia during labor that required epidural catheter
replacement. Ultimately 98.8% of all patients received adequate analgesia even
though 1.5% of patients had multiple replacements. Six percent of epidural
catheters had initial intravenous placement but 46% were made functional by
simple manipulations without higher subsequent failure. Unintended dural
puncture occurred in 1.2% of labor neuraxial analgesia. The incidences of
overall failure, intravenous epidural catheter, wet tap, inadequate epidural
analgesia and catheter replacement were lower in patients receiving combined
spinal-epidural versus epidural analgesia. For cesarean section, 7.1% of pre-existing
labor epidural catheters failed and 4.3% of patients required conversion to
general anesthesia. Spinal anesthesia for cesarean section had a lower failure
rate of 2.7%, with 1.2% of the patients requiring general anesthesia. The
overall use of general anesthesia decreased from 8% to 4.3% over the three-year
period. Furthermore, regional anesthesia was used in 93.5% of cesarean
deliveries with no anesthetic-related mortalities.
A prospective survey of anesthesia for cesarean section was
performed for the year 1 January to
Hergert et al. (152) reported on postoperative pain treatment using epidural
analgesia in 1,822 patients, performed between 1995 to 2000, following
continuous epidural anesthesia combined with general anesthesia for operations
in various specialized areas (general or visceral surgery, vascular and
thoracic surgery, gynecology, urology and orthopedics). A total of 1,727 of
these postoperative epidurals were included in a detailed evaluation. The
postoperative epidural analgesia consisted of a continuous application of 0.25%
bupivacaine or 0.2% ropivacaine. These local anesthetics were administered
epidurally in an hourly perfusion rate of 7.5 ml. It was found a
"good" pain relief through continuous epidural administering of the
local anesthetics in 1,292 patients (74.8%). "Moderate" pain relief
was achieved in 392 patients (22.7%). Sufentanil had to be epidurally
administered in addition to local anesthetics in 262 patients (15.2%) in the
wake-up room. The sufentanil doses lay between 5 and a maximum 10 micrograms
per hour. An additional epidural application of morphine-bolus in a dose of 3
mg every 8-12 hours was necessary in 384 patients (22.2%) in the surgical
wake-up stations. In 392 patients (22.7%), the additional systemic
administering of antipyretic analgesics such as metamizol or paracetamol or
spasmolytica was sufficient. In 43 cases (2.5%), sufficient pain relief could
not be achieved with epidural analgesia even with additive applications of systemic
functioning pharmaceuticals, so that the postoperative pain therapy had to be
completely switched to a PCA. The time of the epidural catheter was 2-5 days.
It was shortest with the gynecological patients and longest with patients from
general, visceral, thoracic and vascular surgery areas. An important factor for
a sufficient epidural analgesia is the exact epidural positioning of the
catheter tip in the area of the spinal cord segments, which are affected by the
operation. The following side-effects resulting from the epidural analgesia
were found: blood pressure loss of more than 20% of the starting value (21%),
temporary bladder voiding disorders (8%), temporary sensory disorders of the
lower extremities (6.5%), seldom nausea (2.4%) and post-puncture headaches
(1.2%). The most important prerequisites for successful postoperative epidural
analgesia and thus for increased patient satisfaction are correct selection of
the insertion height in relation to the planned operation, constantly available
medical pain service, the inclusion of trained care personnel and unequivocal
written instructions.
Rodgers et al. (153) made a systematic review of all trials with randomisation
to intraoperative neuraxial blockade or not in order to obtain reliable
estimates of the effects of neuraxial blockade with epidural or spinal
anesthesia on postoperative morbidity and mortality. 141 trials including 9,559
patients for which data were available before
Combined spinal-epidural anesthesia (CSEA) offers theoretical advantages
especially for lower abdominal and limb surgery, because it produces the rapid
onset of anesthesia and the proper muscle relaxation, with the option to extend
the blockade with an epidural catheter. Niinai et al. (154) analyzed questionnaires on CSEA
obtained form 148 hospitals in
A survey of all German hospitals providing obstetric anesthesia in 1997 (n =
1061), recovery rate 82% comprising 115,000 Cesarean sections, revealed that
most Cesarean sections (CS) are performed under general anaesthesia (GA). For
elective CS, the average was 63%, and 82% for urgent (non-emergency) sections.
Succinylcholine is the standard neuromuscular blocker for intubation. Of the
regional techniques, epidural continuous anesthesia (ED) is preferred for
elective CS (59%) over subarachnoid (SA, 10%) and combined epidural and
subarachnoid anesthesia (CSE). In urgent CS, SA is used more often (56%) than
ED (42%) and CSE (155).
A survey of anesthesia practice was conducted among French residents in
anesthesia at the end of their training (156). This study was performed mainly
to evaluate the residents' experience in peripheral nerve blocks. Two short
clinical cases were proposed to all French residents during a telephone
interview immediately before their certification. The first described the case
of a young asthmatic patient admitted for an elbow fracture. The second
described an elderly woman with severe aortic stenosis admitted for a
supracondylar fracture of the femur. A questionnaire had been prepared and was
filled in during the interview. Each resident was asked to answer according to
the actual choice he or she would have made. For both cases, when general
anesthesia was chosen first, the next question was to discuss which regional
anesthesia would be used if general anesthesia had to be discarded. In that
way, the practical knowledge about most common peripheral nerve blocks learned
during residency was investigated. Of 77 residents registered as being at the
end of their residency, 8 were on either sabbatical or maternity leave. Regional
anesthesia was the first choice in 78% and 57% of cases for the first and
second clinical cases, respectively. The regional anesthetic techniques chosen
were axillary block (66%), interscalene block (31%), and intravenous regional
anesthesia (3%) for case 1 and combined lumbar plexus and sciatic block (36%),
epidural anesthesia (30%), single-shot spinal anesthesia (18%), and continuous
spinal anesthesia (16%) for case 2. Throughout the residency of the group, 32
+/- 2 axillary blocks, 12 +/- 2 interscalene blocks (axillary vs interscalene,
P < .0001), 21 +/- 3 femoral blocks, and 10 +/- 2 sciatic blocks (femoral vs
sciatic, P < .0001) had been performed (mean +/- SEM). They had also
performed 2.5 +/- 0.5 continuous spinal anesthesias and 17 +/- 3 intravenous
regional anesthesias respectively. Upper extremity blocks were more often used
during residency than lower extremity blocks (44 +/- 3 vs 31 +/- 4, P <
.01). A peripheral nerve stimulator was routinely used by 83% of residents.
French residents in anesthesiology at time of certification are better trained
for peripheral nerve blocks of the upper extremity than for those of the lower
extremity. Axillary plexus and femoral nerve block are the most widely used
blocks, probably reflecting the techniques the most mastered among teachers.
Finally, the extensive use of a peripheral nerve stimulator by residents is
probably the result of the widespread use of this device by teachers in
CSEGA and the Immune System
Intrathecal administration of morphine has been shown to suppress natural
killer (NK) cell activity. Yokota et al. (157) tested the hypothesis that
combined administration of morphine and noradrenaline would further modify NK
cell activity in patients undergoing hysterectomy. Thirty female patients were
randomly divided into three groups of ten patients each. Groups MN and M
received intrathecal morphine (0.5 mg) dissolved in 5 ml of physiological
saline with and without 5 micro g noradrenaline, respectively. Group C received
saline alone. After the intrathecal administration, general anesthesia was
induced. Blood samples were withdrawn before and 2 h after surgery and on
postoperative days 1, 2, and 7 to determine the NK cell activity, the ratio of
T-helper/inducer cells (CD4) to T-suppressor/cytotoxic cells (CD8), the levels
of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-8 (IL-8), and the plasma concentrations
of catecholamines and cortisol. NK cell activity decreased on postoperative day
1 in groups MN (12.0 +/- 2.7%) and M (25.4 +/- 9.6%) compared with their
respective baseline levels. In group MN, NK cell activity remained lower (23.7
+/- 8.0%) on postoperative day 2 than the baseline value before surgery.
Intrathecal administration of morphine causes a decrease in NK cell activity,
and its combined use with noradrenaline prolongs the suppression of NK cell
activity.
The perioperative period is characterized by a state of immunosuppression,
which was shown in animal studies to underlie the promotion of tumor metastasis
by surgery. As this immunosuppression is partly ascribed to the neuroendocrine
stress response, Bar-Yosef et al. (158) hypothesized that spinal blockade,
known to attenuate this response, may reduce the tumor-promoting effect of
surgery. Fischer-344 rats were subjected to a laparotomy during general
halothane anesthesia alone or combined with either systemic morphine (10 mg/kg)
or spinal block using bupivacaine (50 microg) with morphine (10 microg).
Control groups were either anesthetized or undisturbed. Blood was drawn 5 h
after surgery to assess number and activity of natural killer cells, or rats
were inoculated intravenously with MADB106 adenocarcinoma cells, which
metastasize only to the lungs. Metastatic development was assessed by
quantifying lung retention of tumor cells 24 h after inoculation or by counting
pulmonary metastases 3 weeks later. Laparotomy conducted during general
anesthesia alone increased lung tumor retention up to 17-fold. The addition of
spinal block reduced this effect by 70%. The number of metastases increased
from 16.7 +/- 10.5 (mean +/- SD) in the control group to 37.2 +/- 24.4 after
surgery and was reduced to 10.5 +/- 4.7 during spinal block. Systemic morphine
also reduced the effects of surgery, but to a lesser degree. Natural killer
cell activity was suppressed to a similar extent by surgery and by anesthesia
alone. The addition of spinal blockade to general halothane anesthesia markedly
attenuates the promotion of metastasis by surgery.
Each type of anesthesia has varying influence on the amount of catecholamine
secretion during surgery. Epidural or spinal anesthesia can markedly suppress
the increase of many of the stress hormones. Poon et al. (159) evaluated
metabolism change during surgery under anesthesia in order to see whether
general anesthesia combined with intraspinal anesthetic and narcotic is a
better way to suppress such stress response Seventeen patients in fit physical
condition (ASA class I) with normal biochemical screening scheduled for radical
gastrectomy were studied. All patients were premedicated with diazepam and
glycopyrrolate and an indwelling catheter was inserted into a radial artery
under local anesthesia for monitoring blood pressure and obtaining blood
samples for glucose and hormonal assays. A CVP line was set up via the right
internal jugular vein for the administration of fluid (free of sugar). In the
study group, a 32-G intraspinal catheter was placed via lumbar interspaces.
Spinal blockade up to T4 by titrating
0.25% marcaine. Then anesthesia in both groups was induced with thiopental 5
mg/kg, followed by succinylcholine 1.5 mg/kg for intubation. Anesthesia was
maintained with isoflurane, N2O, O2 and pancuronium. Blood samples for
measurement cortisol, catecholamine and sugar were taken after induction and 30
min after surgical incision. Thirty min after skin incision all patients were
subjected to glucose tolerance test, accomplished by giving 50% dextrose at
0.33 g/kg in 3 min. Arterial blood samples were then obtained at 1, 3, 5, 7,
10, 20, 30, 45 and 60 min intervals for plasma glucose determination. No
difference was evident in cortisol values, baseline, before and after surgical
incision (p > 0.05) either intragroup or inter-group. Catecholamine and
glucose were significantly higher in control group after surgical incision (p
< 0.05, intra-gr and inter-gr). Following a glucose load the decay of plasma
glucose was similar in both groups but glycemic level was higher in the control
group. Better control of stress response by general anesthesia combined with
subarachnoid block was disclosed in this study.
Stress can be defined as a "reaction by living beings to any relevant
impairment". The effect of anesthesia on endocrine function is closely
related to the actual stress concept based on the works by Cannon and Selye.
Cannon described the role of catecholamines in stress and characterised the
fight-flight reaction. Selye emphasised the role of the adrenocortical reaction
defining the "general adaptation syndrome", which evolves in three
stages ("alarm reaction", "stage of resistance",
"stage of exhaustion"). Later, Henry postulated the dual stress
concept. The sympathetic-adrenomedullary system is activated during the
fight-flight reaction, thus representing an active role of the organism. The
pituitary-adrenocortical system is activated during loss of control, submission
and depression, especially in a social context. Main valid parameters of this
endocrine stress response are adrenaline, noradrenaline, ADH, ACTH and
cortisol. In the perioperative period, both pathways are "stressed".
The most important factors are patient, operation, and anesthesia. Anesthesia
can influence the stress response by afferent blockade (local anesthesia),
central modulation (general anesthesia) or peripheral interactions with the endocrine
system (etomidate). Up to now, a total peripheral blockade of the nociceptive
system is impossible, due to surgical technique (destruction of nerve fibres)
and release of mediator substances. With regard to reduction of endocrine
stress response, inhalation anesthesia with volatile anesthetics and nitrous
oxide may be less effective than neuroleptic, spinal or epidural anesthesia.
Immediately after extubation, rapid increases of endocrine parameters are
observed. In addition to central modulation of pain and stress, both halothane
and enflurane inhibit catecholamine release from the adrenal medulla.
Neuroleptic anesthesia and total intravenous anesthesia are very potent and
sufficient to control the increases in endocrine parameters even during major
surgery, due to their central effects. Spinal and epidural anesthesia alone as
well as in combination with general anesthesia can reduce the endocrine stress
response more than necessary. This is due to the sympathetic blockade, combined
with an afferent blockade of central cord fibers which modulate the
pituitary-adrenocortical system. Only few data are available concerning the
stress response during infiltration anesthesia or nerve block, but additional
sedation seems to be beneficial. Peripheral interactions with the endocrine
system like blockade of the adrenal cortex by etomidate is dangerous and has
caused a high mortality in intensive-care patients if the substance was
admitted for a longer period. Assessment of endocrine stress response in
anesthesia and surgery is controversial (160).
CSEGA and Special Diseases
A 36-year-old patient with a history of previous back surgery, asthma, latex
allergy and achondroplasia presented for urgent cesarean delivery at 31 weeks'
gestation for worsening nonimmune fetal hydrops (161). The fetus was diagnosed
with trisomy 21 and achondroplasia. Because of the urgent clinical situation,
the patient was given a spinal anesthetic, which required supplemental
intravenous sedation after delivery of the fetus.
Molyneux (162) described the peripartum anesthetic management of a 36-year-old
woman who was a manifesting carrier of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Duchenne
muscular dystrophy is an X-linked recessive disorder affecting young males
associated with severe complications during anesthesia if depolarising
neuromuscular blocking drugs and volatile agents are used. A manifesting
carrier is a heterozygous female who demonstrates the disease in a milder form
than in males. This probably occurs because of skewed X-inactivation. Molyneux planned
to establish regional anesthesia should an operation be necessary during labour
or delivery and to use propofol total intravenous anesthesia and rocuronium if
general anesthesia became unavoidable. At 37 weeks, the woman went into
spontaneous labour, but fetal distress necessitated caesarean section for which
combined spinal-epidural anesthesia was used.
Machado-Joseph disease is a form of progressive spino-cerebellar ataxia with
both bulbar and peripheral neurological manifestations. General anesthesia may
be problematic because of the risk of pulmonary aspiration and hypoxia. Teo et
al. (163) described their experience with the successful use of combined
spinal-epidural in a patient with Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD). A 38-year-old
woman with MJD complicated by significant bulbar and peripheral neuropathy
presented for an elective vaginal hysterectomy. She had no other medical
history of note. After informed consent, subarachnoid block was performed by
combined spinal-epidural anesthesia at the L2-3 lumbar intervertebral space
with hyperbaric bupivacaine 12 mg, morphine 100 microg, and fentanyl 10 microg.
Surgery proceeded uneventfully, with excellent postoperative analgesia. There
was full recovery of preinduction neurologic function by the sixth postoperative
hour. Central neuraxial anesthesia is an option for patients with MJD
presenting for lower abdominal and lower extremity operations. Combined
spinal-epidural anesthesia confers hemodynamic stability yet allows for
augmentation of intraoperative anesthesia and postoperative analgesia.
A 24-year-old woman was admitted because of pressing hydramnion. She was
treated by ritodrine hydrochloride leading to rhabdomyolysis, and she was
diagnosed as having myotonic dystrophy (164). She underwent cesarean section
because of urgent premature birth. The surgery was performed with spinal
anesthesia using tetracaine.
A 1-year-old boy, the son of Case 1, underwent orchiopexy
(164). He showed respiratory distress at birth and needed respiratory support
for 140 days. The surgery was performed under general anesthesia combined with
caudal anesthesia. Anesthesia was induced with nitrous
oxide-oxygen-sevoflurane. He was intubated without muscle relaxants. Since he
recovered consciousness soon after the surgery, he was extubated and returned
to the ward.
A 30-year-old woman, the sister of Case 1, underwent
tonsillectomy (164). At the age of 27 she underwent salpingectomy under general
anesthesia with nitrous oxide-oxygen-halothane, after which she was diagnosed
as myotonic dystrophy. She was anesthetized with propofol and fentanyl. Because
severity of the myotonic dystrophy varies among the patients, the strategy for
anesthesia should be planned on each patient. Generally speaking, regional
anesthesia including spinal and epidural anesthesia is preferable.
Kartagener's syndrome is a rare disorder characterized by the triad of situs
inversus, including dextrocardia, bronchiectasis and paranasal sinusitis.
Mathew et al. (165) reported on the anesthetic management of a patient with
Kartagener's syndrome and postrenal transplant immunosuppression, presenting
for repair of uterovaginal prolapse. Combined spinal epidural anesthesia was
administered to this patient.
Namiki et al. (166) described a case of
Freeman-Sheldon syndrome that presented some problems for anesthetic
management. A 2-yr-old girl required orthopedic surgery for the bilateral lower
extremities. Anesthesia was induced via a mask with oxygen (2 l.min-1), nitrous
oxide (4 l.min-1) and sevoflurane (approximately 5%). Tracheal intubation by
direct laryngoscopy was successfully achieved. Combined caudal epidural block
was, however, avoided because spina bifida occulta was suspected. Spina bifida
occulta was revealed postoperatively by X-ray. For anesthetic management of a
patient with Freeman-Sheldon syndrome, the spine should be evaluated
preoperatively when performing epidural/spinal anesthesia.
A 66-year-old male with colon cancer was scheduled for left hemicolectomy(167).
He had a past history of respiratory failure due to chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD). Anesthesia method chosen was general anesthesia with
sevo-flurane combined with epidural anesthesia. Respiration was managed with
assisted ventilation using laryngeal mask airway and muscle relaxation was
obtained with suxamethonium chloride given intermittently. After the operation,
he did not seem to have COPD because of the relation between arterial PCO2 and
bicarbonate in the perioperative period. Therefore, after obtaining informed consent
from this patient, the relation between arterial and spinal fluid acid-base
balance under acetazolamide administration was determined. He was more
sensitive to central respiratory response because his respiration increased
following the decrease of spinal fluid bicarbonate. He was further examined and
diagnosed as Eaton-Lambert syndrome by evoked electromyography and by Ca2+
channel antibody.
A 27-year-old female with Klippel-Trenaunay Syndrome presented for
reconstructive surgery of the deep venous system of the right leg (168).
Contrast enhanced dynamic computed tomography was performed to exclude the
presence of arteriovenous malformation of the lumbosacral spine. A combined
spinal-epidural technique supplemented with light general anaesthesia was performed.
The patient's condition was stable throughout the three hours of surgery and
postoperative analgesia was maintained successfully for three days.
Cherng et al. (169) reported a case of
myotonic dystrophy in a 34-year-old woman who presented for total abdominal
hysterectomy. The goal of anesthetic management is to prevent the known
triggers of myotonic crisis, such as hypothermia, shivering, and hyperkalemia;
and to avoid depolarizing muscle relaxants and anticholinesterase agents. In
this patient, they used combined spinal and epidural block for intraoperative
anesthesia and postoperative analgesia. The advantages of the combined
technique offers rapid onset and good muscle relaxation from subarachnoid
block, with the ability to supplement analgesia through the epidural catheter
both during and after surgery. In addition, the potential complications
associated with general anesthesia, including respiratory insufficiency,
aspiration pneumonia, cardiac arrhythmia, and heart failure can be avoided. The
other measures were directed toward the prevention of shivering, a common
problem encountered with general or regional anesthesia. After the operation,
optimal analgesia was obtained by infusing local anesthetic (0.125%
bupivacaine) via the epidural catheter. No obvious side effects occurred.
Sethna and Berde (170) reported on postoperative pain management of two
adolescents after upper abdominal procedures, one with Hurler-Scheie syndrome
and a second with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and both had progressive spinal
scoliosis with poor pulmonary function. A combined technique of subarachnoid
and general anesthesia was used during surgery. Postoperative administration of
small intermittent doses of subarachnoid morphine produced profound analgesia,
which eliminated the need for systemic opioids, restored preoperative arterial
oxygenation within 48 hours after the operation, and expedited postoperative
recovery.
CSEGA:
Complications
Steffek et al. (171) described a case of total spinal anesthesia, which
occurred after a 3-ml lignocaine (20 mg ml(-1)) test dose was administered
through an epidural catheter in a 79-year-old patient scheduled for gastrectomy
under combined general and epidural anesthesia. The surgery was postponed, and
the patient required admission to the intensive therapy unit. Spinal MRI from
the total spinal cord did not reveal any pathology. During the next 24 h the
patient recovered and after 11 days was successfully operated on under general
anesthesia. No late complications followed. It was presumed that during
placement, the epidural catheter had migrated to the spinal canal as a result
of technical difficulties. A test dose of local anesthetic does not fully
prevent complications.
Bradycardia and asystole can occur unexpectedly during neuraxial anesthesia.
Risk factors may include low baseline heart rate, first-degree heart block,
American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status 1, beta-blockers, male
gender, and high sensory level. Anesthesia information management systems
automatically record large numbers of physiologic variables that are combined
with data input from the anesthesiologist to form the anesthesia record. Such
large databases can be scanned for episodes of bradycardia. Lesser et al. (172)
selected spinal and epidural anesthetics that did not also involve general
anesthesia among 57,240 automated anesthesia records that were scanned.
Obstetrical patients and patients younger than age 12 yr were excluded. The
electronic records selected were then scanned for episodes of moderate (heart
rate < 50 and >/= 40 beats/min) or severe (heart rate < 40 beats/min)
bradycardia. A total of 6,663 cases (11.6%) met the inclusion criteria. Among
the 677 cases of bradycardia (10.2%) were 46 cases of severe bradycardia
(0.7%). In the final multivariate logistic regression analysis, baseline heart
rate less than 60 beats/min (P </= 0.0001) and male gender (P </= 0.05)
contributed significantly to risk for a severe bradycardia episode (odds ratio
[OR]), 14.1 and 95% confidence interval [CI], 6.9-28.0, and OR, 2.1 and 95% CI,
1-4.3, respectively). For the 631 episodes of moderate bradycardia (9.5%), the
final multivariate model included baseline heart rate less than 60 beats/min
(OR, 16.2; 95% CI, 12.4-22.0), age younger than 37 yr (OR, 1.4; 95% CI,
1.1-1.7), male gender (OR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.2-1.8), nonemergency status (OR, 1.7;
95% CI, 1.2-2.4), beta-blockers (OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1-2.3), and case duration
(OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.6-2.4) as significant risk factors. Time of occurrence of a
bradycardia event was distributed widely across the entire duration of a case.
Moderate or severe bradycardia may occur at any time during neuraxial
anesthesia, regardless of the duration of anesthesia. Low baseline heart rate
increases the risk for bradycardia.
A 31-year-old woman with a long history of back pain without neurological
symptoms underwent a cesarean section during the 36th week of pregnancy with
combined spinal-epidural anesthesia (173). Indication was the increasingly
severe back pain. She delivered a normal healthy boy. On the 3rd day after
surgery she developed a discrete sensory cauda equina syndrome on the left
side. The interpretation of the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was a tumor in
the thecal sac extending from the middle of the vertebral body of L1 to the the
superior vertebral plate of L3. A few days later she underwent a laminectomy
under general anesthesia with resection of an intradural mass adherent to the
cauda equina. Pathological review of the surgical specimen revealed a
myxopapillary ependymoma WHO grade I. The postoperative course was
uncomplicated with preservation of bladder dysfunction but after 4 weeks the
bladder function was normalised.
Holdsworth et al. (174) compared the
efficacy of 3 different pharmacologic regimens to relieve pain and distress in
children with cancer undergoing bone marrow aspirations (BMAs) and lumbar
punctures (LPs) in a retrospective cohort study with crossovers for some
patients. The pain and distress ratings of patients undergoing BMAs (n = 73)
and LPs (n = 105) were examined in a comparison of 3 different interventions:
(1) a topical eutectic mixture of lidocaine and prilocaine (EMLA cream), (2)
oral midazolam and EMLA cream, or (3) propofol/fentanyl general anesthesia. The
choice of the intervention depended on patient/parent request. A validated
faces pain scale was completed by the child or parent following each BMA or LP.
The faces pain scale includes ratings of the severity of pain (from 0 = none to
5 = severe) and ratings of how frightened (from 0 = not scared to 5 = scared)
the child was prior to each procedure. Comparisons of the pain and distress
ratings were made among all patients for their first procedure and also within
individual patients who had received >1 of the 3 interventions. Independent
comparisons between the first treatments received by each patient were analyzed
using Kruskal-Wallis tests. Comparisons of different crossover treatments
received by individual patients were analyzed using Wilcoxon tests. For all
first procedures, mean +/- SD pain and distress ratings during LPs were
significantly lower when propofol/fentanyl was used (n = 43; 0.4 +/- 1.0 and
1.4 +/- 1.7) versus either EMLA (n = 29; 2.4 +/- 1.7 and 2.9 +/- 1.9) or
midazolam/EMLA (n = 33; 2.4 +/- 1.8 and 2.7 +/- 1.8), respectively. Pain and
distress ratings during BMAs were also significantly lower with
propofol/fentanyl (n = 29; 0.5 +/- 1.0 and 1.2 +/- 1.7) versus EMLA (n = 21;
3.5 +/- 1.6 and 3.3 +/- 1.8) or midazolam/EMLA (n = 23; 3.3 +/- 1.5 and 3.0 +/-
1.9), respectively. When data were analyzed within each patient, these
differences were also present. Children receiving propofol/fentanyl general
anesthesia experienced significantly less procedure-related pain and distress
than did those receiving either EMLA or oral midazolam/EMLA.
A 72-year-old woman underwent choledocholithotomy under general anesthesia
combined with epidural block (175). She was complicated with hypertension,
diabetes mellitus and angina pectoris, and was given ticlopidine hydrochloride.
The medication was stopped 12 days before the operation. Her coagulation tests
and platelet counts were within normal ranges. An epidural catheter was
inserted at Th 9-10 interspace, and continuous epidural anesthesia was started
for postoperative pain. Just after the operation, numbness and motor paralysis
in both legs occurred. The continuous epidural anesthesia was stopped, and the
symptom on right leg improved. However, after 2 days, magnetic resonance
imaging revealed epidural hematoma extending from Th7 to L1, and the patient
underwent laminectomy. After a month, her motor paralysis in the left leg
started to improve gradually. It is possible that the term of discontinuation
of ticlopidine was not enough.
A 57-year-old male with prostatic cancer was scheduled for a radical
prostatectomy under general anesthesia combined with epidural anesthesia (176).
An epidural catheter was introduced at the L 1-2 interspace without any
problem. The patient was placed in a hyperlordotic supine position with a bolster
under his lower back for the seven and a half hour operation. Upon emergence
from anesthesia, he complained of severe low back pain in addition to
incisional pain. On the second postoperative day, the epidural catheter was
removed. After residural analgesic effects had fully disappeared, he
experienced muscular weakness in the left thigh and could not walk. Regional
sensory loss and edema were also observed where pressure had been applied by
the bolster, although spinal cord magnetic resonance imaging studies were
almost normal. It took him seven weeks to walk without the support of a brace
after surgery. Hyperextension of the lumbar spine could increase the pressure
on the inferior vena cava which is transmitted to the intraspinal vein, and
could lead to the disci intervertebrales compression and the stress on the
facet joint. Prolonged and/or excessive hyperlordosis during surgery should be
avoided.
Combined spinal epidural anesthesia (CSEA) involves the epidural administration
of local anesthetic and opioid solutions adjacent to the prior dural puncture,
potentially increasing their diffusion into the subarachnoid space. Beaubien et
al. (177) designed a study to evaluate the influence of dural puncture on the
adequacy and extent of analgesia, and drugs requirements of patient-controlled
epidural analgesia (PCEA) in the postoperative period. In this prospective
double-blind study, 40 patients undergoing major abdominal surgery under
general anesthesia followed with PCEA were randomly assigned to either group I
(preoperative insertion of an epidural catheter) or group II (preoperative
dural puncture with a 25-g Quincke needle + insertion of an epidural catheter).
Postoperatively, a PCEA pump delivered an infusion of 0.1% bupivacaine +
fentanyl (3 microg/mL) at 5 mL/h. Participants were allowed to self-administer
5-mL boluses of the same solution with a 15-minute lock-out interval. Hourly
epidural solution requirements were recorded for 40 hours. Sensory and motor
block, and pain scores were also analyzed. There was no difference between
groups with regard to epidural solution requirements, pain scores, spread of
sensory blockade, or intensity of motor block. Dural puncture with a 25-gauge
Quincke needle, performed as part of CSEA, does not influence the drug
requirements when a combination of 0.1% bupivacaine and fentanyl (3 microg/mL)
is used for PCEA after major abdominal surgery.
Isolated, heated limb perfusion is used for the treatment of locally recurrent
melanoma, intransit metastases, and acral lentiginous melanomas. Tissue warming
during this procedure requires adequate perfusion within the isolated
extremity. Hynson et al. (178) used spinal or epidural anesthesia to produce
sympathetic blockade and vasodilation for lower extremity procedures. They also
began using mild systemic hyperthermia to produce active thermoregulatory
vasodilation. In the presence of heat stress, sympathetic blockade may actually
decrease skin blood flow because active cutaneous vasodilation, which is
associated with sweating, is dependent on intact sympathetic innervation. They
therefore investigated whether the continued use of neuraxial blockade was
justified. Twenty patients undergoing lower extremity perfusions were
alternately assigned to receive either combined general and spinal anesthesia
or general anesthesia alone. All were aggressively warmed using forced air and
circulating water. There were no significant differences in tissue temperatures
(measured at four sites in the isolated limb) between groups at any time before
or after the start of perfusion. Similarly, pump flow (715 +/- 211 mL/min
versus 965 +/- 514 mL/min) and the time required to achieve an average tissue
temperature of 39 degrees C (43 +/- 16 vs 34 +/- 13 min) were not different
between groups (spinal versus no spinal). Sweating was observed in all but
three patients at esophageal temperatures of 37.9 +/- 0.6 degrees C. It was
concluded that sympathetic blockade confers no added benefit for tissue warming
during isolated limb perfusions in the presence of induced mild systemic
hyperthermia. Sympathetic blockade prevents adrenergic vasoconstriction, but
also inhibits active, neurally mediated cutaneous vasodilation (a normal
thermoregulatory response to heat). In slightly hyperthermic patients, it was demonstrated
that spinal anesthesia does not improve convective tissue warming during
isolated, heated limb perfusion. Mild systemic hyperthermia may promote greater
vasodilation than sympathetic blockade.
A 57-year-old man received gastrectomy under general anesthesia combined with
epidural anesthesia (179). He showed no signs of dural puncture and catheter
migration into the subarachnoid space. Cardiovascular status was stable with
epidural injection of lidocaine, morphine during the operation. Although epidural
morphine and buprenorphine infusions were continued for 1 to 6 postoperative
days, respiratory depression and other side effects were not observed. However,
severe headache in the upright position occurred after stopping these infusions
and the removal of the catheter on the 7th postoperative day. The headache was
thought to be caused by unintentional dural puncture. PDPH persisted over a
period of 30 days and was treated with an epidural blood patch and stellate
ganglion blocks since the other conservative therapy had been ineffective. It
was considered that administration of
continuous epidural opioids for postoperative analgesia helped to prevent PDPH
until the 7th postoperative day. It was also concluded that prolonged PDPH after using a thick needle
like a Touhy needle should be treated by an epidural blood patch.
A 72-year-old woman with no past neurological history was scheduled for a
rectum resection under general combined with epidural anesthesia (180). An
epidural catheter was introduced at T11-12 interspace without any difficulties.
During the operation, she had hypotensive episode needing dopamine, but waked
up from anesthesia without any event. When she became alert, she complained
muscle weakness and loss of sensation in both lower extremities. On the day
after surgery, she became quadriplegic and completely insensitive under Th4
level, but her MRI of the spine showed no abnormal findings. A month after the
operation, her MRI showed diffuse spinal degeneration below C4 level and she had
flaccid paralysis below Th1 with complete sensory loss below Th7 level.
A 62-year-old man with no past neurological history was
scheduled for gastrectomy under general combined with epidural anesthesia (180).
An epidural catheter was placed via T12-L1 without any difficulty. Operative
course was uneventful and awakening from anesthesia was normal. He showed
muscle weakness and hypesthesia of lower extremities two hours after the
operation, and his continuous injection of epidural anesthesia was stopped. His
paralysis became worse but MRI of his spine showed no abnormality on the day
after the operation. He became complete flaccid paralytic and had complete
sensory loss below T7 level. The MRI examination two weeks after the operation
showed degeneration below middle thoracic spinal cord. His neurologic symptoms
have not improved for two years. The etiology of neurologic deficits of these
two case is not obvious although the relation between epidural anesthesia and
neurologic symptoms was most likely.
A 72-year-old female patient was scheduled for abdominal surgery with epidural
block in combination with general anesthesia (181). A 20 G epidural catheter
was inserted through an 18 G Tuohy needle between T12 and L1 using the midline
approach and the 'loss of resistance' technique. A test dose of 13 ml
bupivacaine 0.25% showed no effect and a bolus of 12 ml bupivacaine 0.25% was
added 8 min later. Bilateral analgesia between S5 and C4 developed over the
following 17 min but was not accompanied by any cardiovascular or respiratory
depression. The patient became sleepy and was finally intubated after the
administration of thiopentone 175 mg and pancuronium 6 mg. There were no
objections to surgery, so the hemicolectomy was continued as planned.
Intraoperatively the systolic blood pressure dropped twice, to a minimum of 105
mm Hg, coinciding with eventration of the intestine, but this was reversed
immediately on administration of a vasoconstrictor. Extubation of the patient
was possible 90 min later on the termination of surgery, when the level of
anesthesia had reached T2. A spinal X-ray with radiopaque dye showed a typical
intrathecal distribution. Most remarkable in this case is the stability of the
cardiovascular function which is related to the 0.25% solution. Serious
complications of an inadvertent dural puncture can be avoided or alleviated
with this concentration if the epidural block is to be combined with general
anesthesia.
Combined epidural/general anesthesia might theoretically emphasize the
cardiovascular effects of epidural block alone. The goal of the present
investigation (182) was to evaluate the incidence of both hypotension and
bradycardia during integrated epidural/general anesthesia in a multicentric,
observational study. The incidence of clinical hypotension (systolic arterial
blood pressure decrease by 30% or more from baseline), and bradycardia (heart
rate < 50 beats/min) and other side effects have been evaluated in 1200
consecutive patients receiving integrated epidural/general anaesthesia. The
time from induction of epidural anesthesia to induction of general anesthesia
was considered as preoperative; while the time after general anesthesia
induction was considered as intraoperative. Preoperatively hypotension
developed in 85 patients (2.8%), and bradycardia in 54 patients (4.5%).
Intraoperatively, hypotension was observed in 380 patients (31.6%), and
bradycardia in 153 patients (12.7%). Hypotension and bradycardia were not
influenced by the type of the surgical procedure, the type of maintenance of
general anesthesia (inhalational versus total intravenous general anesthesia)
and the level of epidural block (lumbar versus thoracic); but they were more
frequent in patients with ASA physical status II and III-IV compared to
patients with ASA physical status I (p < 0.05). Prophylactic volume preload
decreased the incidence of hypotension from 41.5% to 22.4% (p < 0.0001),
while prophylactic atropine before epidural block did not affect the incidence
of bradycardia. Patients receiving epidural clonidine showed an increased
incidence of intraoperative bradycardia compared to those who did not receive
it (p < 0.0001).
Borghi et al. (183) evaluated the frequency of hypotension
and bradycardia during integrated epidural-general anesthesia as compared with
general anesthesia or epidural anesthesia alone in a prospective, randomized,
open, multicenter study in 210 ASA physical status I, II, and III patients
undergoing elective total hip replacement. Occurrence of clinically relevant
hypotension (systolic arterial blood pressure (BP) decrease >30% from
baseline), or bradycardia (heart rate (HR) <45 bpm) requiring pharmacologic
treatment were recorded, as well as routine cardiovascular parameters. Clinically
relevant hypotension during induction of nerve block was reported in 13
patients receiving epidural block (18%) and 16 patients receiving
epidural-general anesthesia (22%) (p = 0.67). Subsequently, 22 of the remaining
54 patients in the epidural-general anesthesia group (41%) developed
hypotension after the induction of general anesthesia, as compared with 16
patients of the general anesthesia group (23%) (p = 0.049). No differences in
HR or in frequency of bradycardia were observed in the three groups. The
induction of general anesthesia in patients with an epidural block up to T10
increased the odds of developing clinically relevant hypotension as compared
with those patients who received no epidural block, and was associated with a
twofold increase of the odds of hypotension as compared with the use of
epidural anesthesia alone.
Neubauer and Seligson (184) evaluated and compared whether a difference exists
between measurable factors such as heart rate, blood pressure, pulse, and
anesthesia induction time in patients undergoing spinal versus general
anesthesia. A retrospective study of
eighteen surgical cases on the leg from the knee and distally under spinal
anesthesia were compared to identical or similar procedures performed with a
patient under general anesthesia. Data for heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen
saturation, and the time interval for anesthesia induction were studied. Heart
rate and blood pressure values recorded from the intra-operative anesthesia
record were compared with the recorded preoperative values obtained from the
anesthesia record. Anesthesia induction time was obtained from the interval
between the recorded time for beginning anesthesia and the surgery start time.
Systolic blood pressure increased by an average of 12.3 mmHg in the general
anesthesia (GA) group compared with a value of 12.9 for the spinal anesthesia
(SA) group. Average intra-operative systolic pressure decreased by 10.9 mmHg in
the GA group vs. a decrease of 7.7 for SA. Pulse rate for GA decreased by 3.7
bpm versus an increase of 3.2 in SA. Induction time for GA was 27.9 minutes
compared to an average SA induction time of 29.8 minutes. The study found no
significant differences in intra-operative patient vital signs when comparing
patients under general anesthesia to those under spinal anesthesia.
Additionally, although the literature states that spinal anesthesia takes
longer if the patient is not prepared prior to the operating room being ready,
this study found no significant delay in operation start times for general
anesthesia versus spinal anesthesia.
CSEGA and Emergency Operations
Fuzier et al. (185) evaluated
regional anesthesia procedures for limb traumatic surgery
performed in an emergency department. Anesthetic procedures concerning
traumatic emergencies have been studied from 1995 to 2000. A 32% increase in
anesthesia practice was observed from 1995 (221) to 2000 (292) with a 52%
increase in regional anesthesia. Since 1996, regional anesthesia represents
more than 80% of the anesthetic procedures and 90% for the upper limb surgery
(66% of the surgical procedures). Axillary block (50%), interscalene brachial
plexus block (15%) and combined sciatic and femoral nerve block (17%) were the
main regional anesthesia procedures. Spinal anesthesia (9 cases) and intravenous
locoregional anesthesia (12 cases) were rarely used. In this study, regional
anesthesia is the most used technique when compared to general anesthesia for
emergency procedure.
A 15-yr-old adolescent woman sustained an unstable spinal column injury with an
incomplete neurological deficit following a high speed motor vehicle accident
(186). She was scheduled for spinal decompression and stabilisation through a
left thoraco-abdominal approach. Balanced general anesthesia was undertaken.
Prior to closure, a multi-orifice epidural catheter was surgically placed under
direct vision 5 cm into the anterior epidural space. The catheter was then
tunnelled out through the psoas muscle and secured in place. Combined
epidural-general anesthesia was then initiated for the duration of the case
using 5 ml bupivacaine 0.25% after an initial test dose of 3 ml lidocaine 1.5%
with epinephrine. An infusion of bupivacaine 0.10% and fentanyl 5
micrograms.ml-1 at 8 ml.hr-1 using patient controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA)
provided excellent postoperative pain control for four days. She had an
uncomplicated postoperative course. A surgically placed epidural catheter
provided excellent, safe, perioperative anesthesia and analgesia in this
patient with unstable spinal trauma.
CSEGA and Asthma
Kasaba et al. (187) prospectively
investigated the incidence of asthmatic attacks in 94 patients (1.5%) who were
diagnosed as definite asthma. They separated the patients into three groups: epidural
anesthesia (n = 10) including combined spinal/epidural anesthesia (n = 7),
combined epidural and general anesthesia (n = 23), and general anesthesia (n =
54). General anesthesia was induced with propofol or midazolam and maintained
with N2O and O2 with sevoflurane in adults. Patients who underwent epidural
anesthesia and combined spinal and epidural anesthesia showed no asthmatic
attacks. The incidence of bronchospasm with combined epidural and general
anesthesia was 2/23. The incidence of bronchospasm with general anesthesia was
4/54. Bronchoconstriction occurred after tracheal intubation in 5 patients
except in one patient, in whom it occurred after induction of anesthesia with
midazolam. All episodes of bronchospasm in the operative period were treated
successfully. The frequency of bronchospasm did not depend on the severity of
asthmatic symptoms or the chronic use of bronchodilators before operation.
These findings suggest that tracheal intubation, not the choice of anesthetic,
plays an important role in the pathogenesis of bronchospasm.
CSEGA and Liver Operation
Siniscalchi et al. (188) compared the intraoperative
effects of combined versus general anesthesia during major liver surgery. In
this prospective randomized study, 70 patients were divided into 2 groups of 35
subjects. Group A received general anesthesia (thiopentone, fentanyl,
vecuronium, sevoflurane in a closed circuit) 15 minutes after placement of an
epidural catheter (D9-D10) and induction of epidural anesthesia (6 ml 2% naropine).
Continuous epidural infusion was initiated before surgical incision and
continued with 0.2% naropine (7 ml/h) until the end of the operation. Group B
received combined intraoperative anesthesia with fentanyl doses according to
hemodynamic parameters and 0.1 mg/kg morphine 30-4 minutes before cutaneous
suture. Hemodynamic values were measured at base line (T0), and then at 15, 30,
60, 120 and 180 minutes after induction of general anesthesia (T1, T2, T3, T4
and T5, respectively). On recovery, patients were assessed for pain at rest and
on movement reported on a visual analog scale; degree of motor blockade
according to the Bromage scale; appearance of side effects and use of an
analgesic. A statistically significant decrease in the mean arterial blood pressure
(ABP) and heart rate (HR) was noted within each group at 15 minutes after
induction of general anesthesia. Significant differences in ABP were found
between the 2 groups at T1 to T5, whereas HR values were substantially similar.
The mean intraoperative use of fentanyl was significantly higher in Group B
than in Group A, as was that of vecuronium. Pain intensity on recovery in
patients who received epidural anesthesia was lower both at rest and on
movement; only the patients in Group B required additional analgesics. No motor
blockade was observed in either group. Nausea and vomiting were more frequent
in Group B; hypotension was more frequent in Group A. The study confirms the
safety of locoregional anesthesia in liver surgery, with good hemodynamic stability
and absence of major side effects. The lower intraoperative use of opioids and
muscle relaxants in patients who received epidural anesthesia confirms the
neurovegetative protection this method provides. The data support the
hypothesis that greater intraoperative use of opioids may be responsible for
the higher incidence of side effects. Therefore, the intraoperative use of
combined low-concentration anesthetic agents alone appears to offer a
reasonable treatment option that provides adequate pain control at recovery
from general anesthesia, with only minor side effects typically associated with
analgesic (motor blockade) and opioids (nausea and vomiting). Given the
complications associated with the technique, it should be performed by an
expert anesthetist.
CSEGA and Postoperative Pain
Epidural blood flow was measured in seven patients
undergoing elective abdominal surgery during combined lumbar epidural and
general anesthesia (189). After an initial dose of 20 ml plain bupivacaine
0.5%, a continuous epidural infusion of bupivacaine 0.5% (8 ml/hr) was given
for 16 hours for postoperative pain relief. The epidural blood flow was
measured by a local 133Xe clearance technique in which 15-35 MBq 133Xe diluted
in 1 ml saline was injected through the epidural catheter on the day before
surgery (no bupivacaine), 30 minutes after the initial dose of bupivacaine on
the morning before surgery, and 8, 12, and 16 hours later during the continuous
infusion. Initial blood flow was 6.0 +/- 0.7 ml/min per 100 g tissue (mean +/-
SEM). After epidural bupivacaine, blood flow increased in all seven patients to
7.4 +/- 0.7 ml (P less than 0.02). Initial level of sensory analgesia was T4.5
+/- 0.17 (mean +/- SEM). Postoperatively, two patients maintained the initial
level of sensory analgesia and low pain score throughout the 16-hour study. In
these two patients epidural blood flow remained constant after the initial
increase. Flow increased further to 10.3 +/- 0.8 ml/min per 100 g tissue (P
less than 0.03) in the other five patients as the level of sensory analgesia
regressed postoperatively. These data suggest that changes in epidural blood
flow during continuous epidural infusion of bupivacaine, and thus changes in
rates of vascular absorption of bupivacaine from the epidural space, may be an
important factor contributing to differences in rates of regression of sensory
analgesia.
Conclusion
Epidural and spinal blocks are well-accepted regional techniques, but they have
several disadvantages. The CSE technique can reduce or eliminate the risks of
these disadvantages. CSE block combines the rapidity, density, and reliability
of the subarachnoid block with the flexibility of continuous epidural block to
extend duration of analgesia. The CSE technique is used routinely at many
institutions, particularly for major orthopedic surgery and in obstetrics. It
has been used in tens of thousands of patients without any reports of major
problems. Although at first sight the CSE technique appears to be more
complicated than epidural or spinal block alone, intrathecal drug
administration and siting of the epidural catheter are both enhanced by the
combined, single-space, needle-through-needle method. Concerns about the
epidural catheter entering the theca via the small puncture hole are now
considered to be unfounded, but as with all epidural catheter techniques,
vigilant monitoring of the patient during and after any injection is paramount.
CSE is an effective way to reduce the total drug dosage required for anesthesia
or analgesia. The intrathecal injection achieves rapid onset with minimal doses
of local anesthetics and opioids, and the block can be prolonged with low-dose
epidural maintenance administration. In addition, the sequential CSE method can
be used to extend the dermatomal block with minimal additional drugs or even
saline. Reduction in total drug dosage has made truly selective blockade
possible. Many studies have confirmed that low-dose CSE with local anesthetic
and opioid, or low-dose epidural block alone, will provide effective analgesia
with minimal motor and proprioceptive block. Such neurologic selective blockade
has made it possible for most patients to walk and bear down normally in labor
or postoperatively. There remains concern about the risk of infection being increased
when the CSE technique is used in place of epidural block alone. Despite a
recent flurry of reports of meningitis with CSE procedures, there is no
evidence the CSE block is more hazardous than epidural or subarachnoid block
alone. Arguably, the single-space, needle-through-needle CSE technique will
continue to improve with new needle designs and other advances to improve
further the success rate and reduce complications, such as neurotrauma, PDPH,
and infection. Over the past decade it has become clear that the CSE technique
is a significant advance in regional blockade (190).
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